mesopotamia invent the sailboat

Mesopotamian Reed Boats Changed the Stone Age

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Ancient Civilizations
Excavations
History of Animal and Plant Domestication
M.A., Anthropology, University of Iowa
B.Ed., Illinois State University

Mesopotamian reed boats constitute the earliest known evidence for deliberately constructed sailing ships, dated to the early Neolithic Ubaid culture of Mesopotamia , about 5500 B.C.E. The small, masted Mesopotamian boats are believed to have facilitated minor but significant long-distance trade between the emerging villages of the Fertile Crescent and the Arabian Neolithic communities of the Persian Gulf. Boatmen followed the Tigris and Euphrates rivers down into the Persian Gulf and along the coasts of Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Qatar. The first evidence of Ubaidian boat traffic into the Persian Gulf was recognized in the mid-20th century when examples of Ubaidian pottery were found in scores of coastal Persian gulf sites.

However, it is best to keep in mind that the history of sea-faring is quite ancient. Archaeologists are convinced that both the human settlement of Australia (about 50,000 years ago) and the Americas (about 20,000 years ago) must have been assisted by some sort of watercraft to assist moving people along the coastlines and across large bodies of water. It is quite likely that we will find older ships than those of Mesopotamia. Scholars are not even necessarily certain that Ubaid boat-making originated there. But at present, the Mesopotamian boats are the oldest known.

Ubaid Boats, the Mesopotamian Ships

Archaeologists have assembled quite a bit of evidence about the ships themselves. Ceramic boat models have been found at numerous Ubaid sites, including Ubaid, Eridu , Oueili, Uruk , Uqair, and Mashnaqa, as well as at the Arabian Neolithic sites of H3 located on the northern coast of Kuwait and Dalma in Abu Dhabi. Based on the boat models, the boats were similar in form to bellums (spelled bellams in some texts) used today on the Persian Gulf: small, canoe-shaped boats with upturned and sometimes elaborately decorated bow tips.

Unlike wooden planked bellams, Ubaid ships were made from bundles of reeds roped together and covered with a thick layer of bituminous material for water-proofing. An impression of string on one of several bitumen slabs found at H3 suggests that the boats may have had a lattice of ropes stretched across the hull, similar to that used in later Bronze Age ships from the region.

In addition, bellams are usually pushed along by poles, and at least some of the Ubaid boats were apparently had masts to enable them to hoist sails to catch the wind. An image of a boat on a reworked Ubaid 3 sherd (a ceramic fragment) at the H3 site in coastal Kuwait had two masts.

Trade Items

Very few explicitly Ubaidian artifacts have been found in the Arabian Neolithic sites apart from bitumen chunks, black-on-buff pottery, and boat effigies, and those are fairly rare. Trade items might have been perishables, perhaps textiles or grain, but the trade efforts were likely minimal, consisting of small boats dropping in at Arabian coastal towns. It was a fairly long distance between the Ubaid communities and the Arabian coastline, approximately 450 kilometers (280 miles) between Ur and Kuwait. Trade does not seem to have played a significant role in either culture.

It is possible that the trade included bitumen, a type of asphalt. Bitumen tested from Early Ubaid Chogha Mish, Tell el'Oueili, and Tell Sabi Abyad all come from a wide variety of different sources. Some come from northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and southern Turkey. Bitumen from H3 was identified as having an origin at Burgan Hill in Kuwait. Some of the other Arabian Neolithic sites in the Persian Gulf imported their bitumen from the Mosul area of Iraq, and it is possible that boats were involved in that. Lapis lazuli, turquoise, and copper were exotics in the Mesopotamian Ubaid sites that potentially could have been imported, in small amounts, using boat traffic.

Boat Repair and Gilgamesh

Bitumen caulking of the reed boats was made by applying a heated mixture of bitumen, vegetal matter, and mineral additives and allowing it to dry and cool to a tough, elastic covering. Unfortunately, that had to be replaced frequently. Hundreds of slabs of reed-impressed bitumen have been recovered from several sites in the Persian Gulf. It may be that the H3 site in Kuwait represents a place where boats were repaired, although no additional evidence (such as woodworking tools) was recovered to support that.

Interestingly, reed boats are an important part of Near Eastern mythologies. In the Mesopotamian Gilgamesh myth, Sargon the Great of Akkad is described as having floated as an infant in a bitumen-coated reed basket down the Euphrates River. This must be the original form of the legend found in the Old Testament book of Exodus where the infant Moses floated down the Nile in a reed basket daubed with bitumen and pitch.

Carter, Robert A. (Editor). "Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration in the Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East." Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations, Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, September 15, 2010.

Connan, Jacques. "An overview of bitumen trade in the Near East from the Neolithic (c.8000 BC) to the early Islamic period." Thomas Van de Velde, Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, Wiley Online Library, April 7, 2010.

Oron, Asaf. "Early Maritime Activity on the Dead Sea: Bitumen Harvesting and the Possible Use of Reed Watercraft." Ehud Galili, Gideon Hadas, et al., Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Volume 10, Issue 1, The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System, April 2015.

Stein, Gil J. "Oriental Institute 2009-2010 Annual Report." Oriental Institute, The University of Chicago, 2009-2010, Chicago, IL.

Wilkinson, T. J. (Editor). "Models of Mesopotamian Landscapes: How small-scale processes contributed to the growth of early civilizations." BAR International Series, McGuire Gibson (Editor), Magnus Widell (Editor), British Archaeological Reports, October 20, 2013.

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Ancient Mesopotamia Sailboats: An Introduction

Categories : Marine history
Tags : Marine engineering

Five thousand years ago Mesopotamians started using sailing boats. Since Mesopotamia was situated between two famous rivers, namely the Euphrates and the Tigris, they needed water transportation for travel and trade. Some of the important items they are credited with inventing include wheels, chariots, sailboats and cuneiform (the earliest form of writing). These are just some of the contributions by the Mesopotamians to the modern world. All this and more was around four to five thousand years ago. Let’s explore more about the important role of sailboats in their culture.

Why Did the Mesopotamians Need Sailboats?

A civilization flourishes based on its trade and commerce, and Mesopotamia was no exception. They wanted to set up trade relationships with nearby cities and countries. These were in the days before road routes were built making transportation of goods by land routes hectic and difficult. Therefore, they had to figure out an alternative mode of transportation for goods and people. This came in the form of water transportation, and thus the first boats were invented.

They were simple wooden boats that would carry people and goods downstream and then back upstream. But boats need people to navigate and guide them across rough waters, so the solution of having a vessel carry their goods and people had to be refined. Thus sailboats were invented. They were primitive in design, but the sailboats helped the Mesopotamians in trade and commerce.

They also helped in irrigation and fishing. Mesopotamians had mastered the art of fishing. They would go downstream using sailboats, cast their nets, stay, wait and return with the catch. Thus the sailboats of Mesopotamia helped the Mesopotamians establish trade relationships with other cities and countries, making them one of most famous civilizations to flourish and change the course of history with their inventions.

How were the Sailboats of Mesopotamians Made?

The sailboats of Mesopotamia were simple in design; the sails were square in shape and made of cloth. The angle and direction of the sails coul not be changed. If the wind blew in the direction that the sailboats desired to go, things went well. If that wasn’t the case, they had to wait for the wind to blow in their favor!

The hull or the body of the boat was made of wood. Trees were cut and made into planks, and the planks were roughly shaped and joined together to make the body of the boat. Though they couldn’t handle lots of cargo or people at a given time, they could do better than what other sailing vessels of that time had to offer. The design work they did on their sailboats provided the basis for all future sailboats, even five thousand years later.

Until the fall of Mesopotamian civilization, not many changes were made to the basic design of the sailboat. This crucial invention largely helped in making Mesopotamian civilization a great empire and civilization along with the society’s other contributions.

Mesopotamia gave the world incredible contributions like wheels, cuneiform, sailboats, glass making, textile weaving and a lot more, truly making them one of the greatest civilizations ever to walk on this planet. Their sailboats were as simple as they needed to be, but they introduced plank construction and square sails. Even though the vessels were of limited capacity, these ships revolutionized water travel. The basic design of their sailboats is still in use even today.

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Image Credit: Wikipedia

World History Edu

Ancient Mesopotamia / World History

7 Major Mesopotamian Inventions

by World History Edu · June 14, 2019

The ancient Mesopotamian civilization brought forth groundbreaking inventions and discoveries which redefined their way of life. Even though their first settlements lived in primitive homes, the Mesopotamian people multiplied with time and crossed boundaries to create cities. The following is a list of 7 major inventions we owe to the ingenuity of ancient Mesopotamian civilization.

The wheel, a key Mesopotamian invention. Image source: Linoit.com

Mesopotamians were the first humans to conceive and invent the wheel with the view to using it for transportation purposes. As early as 3500 BC, the circular structure was already in use. Historians believe that the oldest ancient wheel was found in 2002, in Ljubljana, the Slovenian capital town. Therefore, they named it the Ljubljana Marshes Wheel. The age of the wheel was estimated to be about 5000 years old.

When the wheel was invented to aid transportation purposes, it was only the wealthy people who could afford it. The wheels were not only used for transportation. They were also employed in irrigation, milling and making pots. The invention of the wheel went on to inspire Mesopotamians to develop new technologies such as the chariot.

The Chariot

An image of the Chariot, being attached to a horse. Image source: Busy.org

Agriculture became a profitable business which allowed Mesopotamians to rear and domesticate animals. When the domestication of animals became a success, Mesopotamians realized that animals could provide enough mechanical power to convey people and goods from place to place.

They invented the chariot (a carriage) to be used in conjunction with animal power. Bulls and horses were attached to the chariot by using ropes. When the animals are persuaded to move, the chariot is drawn along the path of the animals. This innovation changed the life of the Mesopotamian people; they had just discovered a more efficient way of transportation. The chariot was also used by Mesopotamians to do sporting activities and fight wars.

The first chariots built in 3200 BC, were designed out of wooden parts. The wheels, body, and rim were all carved out of wood. The animal-drawn chariots gave a wonderful riding experience to the Mesopotamian civilization. The wealthy people and royals (kings and queens) took comfortable rides in their chariots.

The chariot stayed in place until future generations got smarter and introduced motorized vehicles. Nevertheless, the contribution of Mesopotamian civilization to modern civilization can never be downplayed. Factually, one good thing leads to another.

The Sailboat

The invention of the sailboat enhanced trade across borders. Image source: Mesopotamianblue55

Ancient Mesopotamian engineers got more determined to break boundaries and make their lives easier and better. With the invention of the animal-drawn wheels and chariots, Mesopotamians could comfortably travel by land to farther places. How about water? The Sumerians wanted to move across rivers, seas, and other water bodies. Therefore, they invented sailboats to travel on water. They successfully invented the first sailboats which were powered and navigated by humans. The boats were used by Mesopotamians to explore and fish in the Tigris River and the Euphrates rivers. Once again, they had an awesome experience floating and moving through water.

The first boats were carved to have a square shape, with the sail made from a piece of cloth. This primitive boat relied on the direction of the wind before it could operate. Unfortunately, they couldn’t change their course without using a favorable wind direction. But the invention was still a game changer.

The Plow (plough)

The plow was invented to enhance agriculture. Image source: Artnet.com

Mesopotamians took much interest in agriculture. They sought ways to till their land and improve crop production. This was achieved by inventing devices which could be pulled through the soil, to break and loosen it. Mesopotamians realized that they could use animal power from cattle (oxen) to pull plows and loosen the soil. This marked the invention of the plow. They named the first plow as “Ard”. Even though the ard was wood-made, it was heavier in mass.

One other weak point of the plow: it could get stuck by debris which had to be timely removed with the hand. When used on harder and thickly grassed lands, the plow lacked enough power to move through the resistance. Despite the challenges faced by Mesopotamians in using the plow, the device still revamped their agriculture.

Time-Measuring Devices

Mesopotamians also manufactured instruments that could record the passage of time. They were even the first civilization to conceptualize time. The Mesopotamian civilization were the first people to break down units/divisions for time. Their time system gave us 60 seconds = 1 minute and 60 minutes = 1 hour. The Babylonian people did astronomical computations which were based on the number “60” (hesagesimal system). Babylonians inherited that system from the Sumerians. The reason for 60 being chosen was that it is a number which easily divides by 6.

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Astronomy and Astrology

The Mesopotamian civilization were also the first people to observe heavenly bodies such as planets and stars. They used the movement of the stars to time their planting seasons. Mesopotamians grouped stars into constellations. They also tried to find a correlation between the movement of heavenly bodies and their effects on people’s lives (this was the foundation of Astrology). Modern Astronomy is now a scientific field which involves the study of celestial bodies in outer space (beyond the Earth’s atmosphere).

As Mesopotamian flourished in agriculture and commerce, it became necessary for them to record their trades and transactions. Aside from that, they needed to document their cultural values and store them for future generations. Mesopotamians solved a scripted communication problem, by inventing the first method of writing, known as cuneiform. Cuneiform was a pictorial form of writing – it wasn’t an easy thing to learn but it afforded Mesopotamians a means to record their own history.

Other social inventions of ancient Mesopotamia

The list of Mesopotamian inventions extends to many areas in science, mathematics, law, medicine, architecture and more. However, they also instituted laws and government systems which are still practiced by today’s society. For example, Mesopotamians instituted monarchies to rule their people. The Sumerians had kings who reigned over territories. They also proposed laws to punish unlawful people. In summary, ancient Mesopotamians were geniuses who introduced jaw-dropping innovations. Let’s give them the credit.

Tags: Ancient Culture invention of the wheel Mesopotamian inventions the chariot

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Top 12 Inventions and Discoveries of Ancient Babylonia

Can you imagine a world without the wheel?

No wheels would mean no cars, trains, or airplanes, and no machines or industry.

In the absence of the wheel, the world would come to a standstill.

We can thank the Babylonians for pioneering discoveries like the wheel, the chariot, and the sailboat, as well as the development of the first-known map, which was engraved on clay tablets.

Inventions and Discoveries of Ancient Babylonia

Let us take a look at the top 12 most significant Babylonian discoveries:

1. The First Map

Maps have immense importance even in the contemporary world, where we rely on Google Maps for many of our journeys.

An ancient Babylonian cartographer created the world’s first map on a clay tablet in 2300 BC. The map covers a small region of Babylonia during the Akkadian Empire. It shows trade routes and was used as a reference during military campaigns, hunting, and exploration.

The Babylonian Map of the World is circular and depicts mountains, rivers, canals, and swamps.

The seven small circles on the map represent the seven Babylonian cities. It can now be found in the British Museum.

2. Cuneiform

Originating in 3400 BC, cuneiform is the first-known form of written communication.

It cannot be regarded as a language as it comprised less than 1,000 characters, and these characters were used for accounting, administrative and business purposes.

Individuals with varying levels of education and knowledge could use it, and ordinary people used it to write letters, organize their business affairs, and document everyday occurrences such as astrological events.

More educated people used it for technical purposes like writing medical catalogs and mathematical derivations.

A pointed stylus was used to carve characters on a clay slab to maintain and manage records.

The oldest cuneiform slabs were illustrated and used visual symbols to communicate, the cuneiform alphabet only developing later on. The ancient Iraqi languages, Sumerian and Akkadian, were also carved on the clay tablets.

3. Agriculture

Agriculture is a core practice in most countries, and a country’s agrarian produce determines its growth.

Agriculture not only feeds the population but also provides employment opportunities.

An essential agricultural tool is the plow, which is used to loosen the soil ready for planting seeds.

The most primitive form of the plow was a stone hoe that was developed by Babylonians to turn the soil.

The earth dried up quickly in the plains of Babylonia, leading to the invention of the stone plow to set the ground.

Babylonians cultivated crops like emmer, wheat, and barley, and flax clothing was standard during this time.

The Babylonians regulated the flow of water to irrigate their crops and dug canals and irrigation ditches which, along with the plow, led the way for a new era of agricultural revolution.

4. Urbanization

As a result of agriculture and other employment factors, the Babylonians gradually moved from rural areas to more developed regions.

Urbanization began around 8,000 years ago in Babylonia as people moved to cities to seek educational and employment opportunities. This, in turn, helped them to earn more and improve their lifestyle.

With the dawn of the agricultural revolution, more and more people began to live in one region, resulting in urbanization.

People chose areas which were favorable for agriculture, and as trading developed, the idea of taxes was introduced.

5. Astrology and Horoscopy

Astrology is the science of studying the position of celestial bodies and reading how their movements can influence our lives, and this belief is widely practiced even in the modern world.

In ancient Babylon, it was thought that the celestial bodies had divine powers which directed people’s lives.

Constellations were used to determine the weather, climate, and the seasons, and to help people decide which crops should be sown when. The moon, the stars, and the sun were studied to predict future events like thunder or an eclipse.

Ancient Babylonian astronomists closely studied the sun and the moon cycles in order to predict this.

The concept of the horoscope was introduced by the Babylonians as they believed in the divinity of the celestial bodies. They mapped the position of astronomical bodies so that they could foretell their daily lives and those of their kings.

6. The Concept of Time

All of us have heard the adages “Time waits for no man” and “A stitch in time saves nine” but have you ever thought who created the concept of time? Of course, none other than the Babylonians, who devised a system of dividing time into 60 sections.

The current system of time has been in use for four millennia now.

The number 60 was chosen as the dividing factor as it was divisible by 6. The Babylonians estimated that the earth moved around the sun one degree in a day and took 360 days. This number was again divisible by 6. Astrologers used the sexagesimal system of numbering which took 60 as its base. They noted the frequency and duration of the full moon and saw that this was also divisible by 6.

7. The Sailboat

Since Babylonia was located in between two famous rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, the importance of traveling by water was soon recognized.

Trade was at its peak and traveling via land routes was cumbersome and time-consuming. The Babylonians soon discovered an alternative when they realized the potential of water as a means of transportation.

The Babylonians invented the first sailboat with a basic structure and framework.

The first sailboat was square; it was made of cloth and relied on the wind to move.

With the invention of the sailboat, the Babylonians were able to expand their trade and commerce, soon trading with cities which were previously unreachable by land.

8. The First Wheel

Not only did Babylonia invent the sailboat for use on water, but also the wheel for use on land routes.

The oldest wheels were made of clay, rock, and mud, with wooden wheels coming much later on.

The Babylonians created the wheel in around 3,500 BC, the earliest wheel being used for pottery.

The first wheel did not have spokes and was in the form of a roller. Gradually, wheels were joined together with an axle by drilling holes in them for the shaft which went through the frame of a cart.

The wheel was first used by the elite and the wealthy for transport in 3200 BC, and soon its use for conveyance purposes, for pottery, in machines, and for irrigation was widespread in Babylonia.

The invention of the wheel ultimately led to the industrial revolution.

9. The Chariot

Originally, carts were used for the transportation of goods and for traveling. Soon they were being pulled by domestic animals, and this newly developed cart was known as a chariot.

The framework of the oldest chariot consisted of wood with a rim, and two-wheeled chariots were used in battle and to transport weapons and other war provisions.

Soon, chariots were being used as a means of transportation by royalty and the elite.

10. The Study of Mathematics

Mathematics has always been a part of human life, and the Babylonians developed many advanced mathematical theories which are still in use today. As the Babylonian civilization flourished and began to trade, an accurate counting system was necessary to measure the value of goods exchanged. The Babylonians created the concept of counting and the sexagesimal number system also originated in Babylonia.

They had an advanced decimal structure with a base of 60. It was the Babylonians who brought about the concept of 24 hours in a day with each hour consisting of 60 minutes, and each minute 60 seconds. The number 60 was chosen as it had multiple divisors. Evidence of mathematics has been found on old clay slabs from the period on which the Babylonians practiced fractions, algebra, and Pythagoras theorem.

Mathematics developed in reaction to the needs of the people. It played an essential part in daily life for the purposes of measuring land and working out a uniform tax system. They also made use of geometric shapes as a foundation for their architecture.

11. The Primitive Plow

The plow is an essential agricultural tool which is used to turn the soil.

The invention of the plow was a revolutionary agrarian development first discovered by the Babylonians. This early plow was called the ard. It was made of wood and was not very effective on grass.

The invention of the plow brought about great societal changes in the hunter-gatherer groups of Babylonia, enabling them to stay in one place and rely on agriculture instead of hunting.

12. Art and Architecture

The Babylonians built gigantic stone structures which resembled huge towers and were known as ziggurats. Etemenanki was a famous Babylonian ziggurat measuring around 299 feet (91 meters) which possibly inspired the story of the Tower of Babel. It is now in ruins.

The Babylonians were prolific artists, and even the most mundane household objects were beautifully decorated with images of human or animal forms.

Babylonian artifacts can be found in many museums today, often depicting scenes from everyday Babylonian life.

Babylonia has given the world many unprecedented and revolutionary innovations. The invention of the wheel led to the creation of chariots which were of the utmost importance during times of war.

The most crucial agricultural tool – the plow – was designed by the Babylonians which led to great advances in agriculture and eventually urbanization.

The first-known form of written communication was the cuneiform clay tablet which originated in Babylon, and along with the first map and the invention of the sailboat, it is easy to see how this ancient civilization is of such great importance even today.

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Ancient Mesopotamian Inventions That Are Still Used Today

A historical region in West Asia, Mesopotamia was once home to bustling civilizations filled with creative minds. Touted with some of the earliest developments from around 10,000 BCE, this region was pivotal in shaping human development and history. Bolstered by the technologically focused Sumerians, everything from farming to travel was improved in Mesopotamia. That said, how many of these ancient inventions are still in use today? Below are some of the most important ancient Mesopotamian inventions that are still thriving and essential to the world.

Wheel Alloy Wheels Rim or Mag Wheel high performance auto part decoration

A simple circle designed to reduce friction for movement, the wheel is an important human advancement. From cars to fidget spinners, it is prevalent across industries for a variety of intelligent purposes. With such utility, we can thank the Mesopotamians for inventing the stunning wheel! While the exact place and time are still debated, most historians suggest that the wheel was invented around 4,000 BCE in Lower Mesopotamia. That said, it was not seen on a wagon or chariot but on a mechanism used to make clay pots. Specifically, the first wheel and axle system was spotted on a potter’s wheel which allowed a massive mechanical advantage for pottery. Although quite simple with a solid disc of wood, this innovation slowly popped up across other civilizations and became an essential component of all forms of transportation.

Development of Mathematics

Man looking at a blackboard with complicated math equation.

Whether studying in school or making the blueprint for a new building, mathematics is essential for nearly everything humans do. Over thousands of years, people have developed a vast area of knowledge in the field of mathematics. This envelops various industries such as engineering, medicine, finance, and computer science. Among the many civilizations involved in growing mathematics, Mesopotamia is often considered the most prominent. This is because Babylonian mathematicians created arithmetic, multiplication tables, square roots, and division, and even began calculating algebraic equations back in 2,000 BCE. These advancements were first seen in ancient Mesopotamian mathematical texts. They helped create new uses for math throughout the daily life of people. For example, advanced calculations were incorporated into finance, construction, and taxation for the first time.

In addition to complex calculations, Mesopotamia’s Babylonian mathematicians are also revered for creating a common number system. Known as the sexagesimal system, it involved measuring values by the number 60. This included 60 minutes in an hour, 60 seconds in a minute, and 360 degrees in the sky. Not only did this system introduce a uniform way to measure angles and time, but it was so efficient that we still use it today! So, suffice it to say that humans would probably be stuck in ancient times ourselves without the help of ancient Mesopotamia!

Girl looking at lunar eclipse through a telescope.

Look up at the night sky and gazers will see beautiful stars, constellations, planets, comets, and other beautiful celestial bodies to adore. From the Orion constellation to Saturn, the only reason humans can identify what is being looked at is thanks to the ancient Mesopotamians. Dating back to around 1,000 BCE, Assyro-Babylonians were the first to document systematic astronomical observations. Incorporating their mathematical knowledge, early astronomers from Mesopotamia recorded periodic motions to discover lunar cycles. While they still did not know how far away celestial bodies were, it was a major jump from the previous lack of astronomy understanding. The work of Babylonians was so far ahead of its time that it was the norm for about 700 years, after which Greek astronomers built upon it.

The Sailboat

Sailboats on the background of the sunset over the sea

Traveling the waters today has become a leisurely task thanks to electric motors and engines that can power efficient propellers to cut through the water. That said, for thousands of years, sailboats were the peak of water travel allowing sailors to take advantage of the wind’s currents. Used by famous adventurers such as Christopher Columbus and Marco Polo, the important sailboat was the brainchild of Mesopotamian inventors. Specifically, the first model of a sailboat was found on a painted disc from 5,500 BCE ancient Mesopotamia. According to historians, the early Neolithic Ubaid culture of Mesopotamia developed small reed boats that took advantage of the wind’s direction. These boats used bundles of reed as sails for increased mobility and made long-distance sea trade viable. Testament to this, ancient Mesopotamians played an important role in sea travel throughout the past 7,000 years.

Mass-Produced Bricks

Known for their superior quality and durability, bricks are present in most buildings today. These useful building blocks have been around for thousands of years with early traces dating back to Turkey around 7,000 BCE. However, the process was quite primitive and only a few bricks could be made at a time. As it often requires more than just a few bricks to construct large buildings, the introduction of mass-produced bricks by Mesopotamians was a construction game-changer.

While dates vary, the earliest confirmed reports of fired bricks can be traced to between 5,000 - 3,000 BCE. At this time, Mesopotamians began using standard brick molds, filled them with clay, and dried them in the sun. This allowed continuous production and bolstered the development of large structures in ancient Mesopotamia. Further down the line, kilns (ovens) were used for drying, and the clay was tempered with sand or straw creating a faster and more durable process. So, instead of a few, a single worker could make dozens of bricks at a time. Encouraging further development and major cities, it was a milestone in human construction.

Hand of bartender pouring a large lager beer in tap.

Who does not enjoy a chilled pint of beer after a hard day of work? Relieving the stress of work and perhaps helping people get some peaceful sleep, beer is a great drink to enjoy. However, this is far from a modern libation! The first concrete discovery of beer production is credited to the Sumerians of Mesopotamia back in 4,000 BCE. This is thanks to a combination of two historic items, a tablet, and a poem. The tablet was discovered in a recent Mesopotamian excavation and it showcases people drinking a beverage from a bowl. While this is not enough in itself, a Mesopotamian poem for the goddess of brewing tells the oldest known recipe of beer using barley as the main ingredient. Testament to this, most historians agree to the consensus that beer was invented in ancient Mesopotamia. Surprisingly, they didn’t stop there and continued refining the process for more than 1,000 years, until the Babylonians were producing more than 20 different types of beer!

From our work week to festivals, a calendar helps to keep track of time and events. Now available on cell phones, this advanced method of tracking days is another one of Mesopotamia’s amazing inventions. Although timekeeping was around for many years, the Sumerians of Mesopotamia were the first to create an actual calendar. Based on their advanced sexagesimal system, the first Sumerian calendar had 360 days, 29 or 30-day months, 12 lunar months, and 12-hour days. Not so dissimilar from our current calendar, the premise was that each full moon would mark the end of a month. This calendar helped Sumerians track time for hundreds of years and was a massive leap in the understanding of astronomy at the time. To this end, it was not until hundreds of years later that the Egyptians and Babylonians advanced the calendar system incorporating the rotations of the sun, moon, and stars to calculate time.

From the wheel in your car to the bricks used to make your house, ancient Mesopotamian inventions are the building blocks for human society and are found everywhere. Their ideas in math and astronomy not only helped growth but also sparked creativity in future civilizations. The next time you’re drinking a beer or marking a date on your calendar, appreciate the work and history behind these simple things

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Top Inventions and Discoveries of Mesopotamia

Located in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent , Mesopotamia is southwest Asia's historical region within the Euphrates and Tigris river systems. The area, also referred to as " Cradle of Civilization ," is located in the region now known as the Middle East . It is very significant in terms of human civilization and inventions that changed the world, as we know it today. Mesopotamia inventions include concepts like writing , maps, sailboat, math, and time . Besides, it is characterized by the shifting succession of ruling bodies from various regions and cities that have taken control over hundreds of years.

Agriculture and Irrigation
Writing and Mathematic
Concept of Cartography, Astrology, and Astronomy
Metal fabrication
Concept of urbanization
Board games

The root words " Meso " meaning " in the middle or between " and " Patmos ," meaning " river ," forms the name Mesopotamia. Therefore, the title describes the land, which is between rivers. Mesopotamia is home to modern-day Syria, Turkey, Kuwait, and Iraq. Mesopotamian civilization began 14,000 B.C. when the first humans settled there during the Paleolithic era and living in small circular settlements . Five decades later, people who occupied formed a community of farmers. Agriculture development happened to utilize the Fertile Crescent and nearness of Euphrates-Tigris river systems and animal domestication. Agriculture progressed because of Ubaid's dominant culture , which had absorbed the culture of their predecessors Halaf community. In this article, we will look at the top three inventions and discoveries by the Mesopotamians.

1. Agriculture and Irrigation

The development of agriculture began about ten decades ago during the Holocene Epoch era. In most of history, humans have spent time hunting and gathering for food . The taming of animals and raising crops most likely began in the north of Syria and Iraq . The prehistoric irrigation system remains still exist.

Concept of agriculture in ancient Mesopotamia

The Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia did the world first works of engineering by building temples, city walls, and dug canals. Irrigation was essential to ancient Mesopotamians. However, flooding was considerable concern in Mesopotamia; Euphrates and Tigris Rivers carried huge silt volumes, leading to the river changing its course. Flooding led the Mesopotamians to construct levees along the riverbanks to prevent water from overflowing into their fields. Efforts to control flooding were first made successfully in Mesopotamia.

Under the harsh constraints of desert climate , ancient Mesopotamians developed systems and strategies that helped them develop the first known monarchy, empire, and city dominated by institutions led by provincial palaces and other elites. They had focused on the cultivation of cereals, in particular barley , together with grapes, dates, and legumes . Mesopotamia had two ecological domains, which was depended on the cultural distinction of the locals. In the southern part of Mesopotamia , which later becomes Babylon was the land of Akkad Sumer was the driest and received low or no rainfall at all. Therefore, they depended on large-scale irrigation supervised by their elite; however, they produced more than the northern part. The north region , which later became the Assyrians' land , received moderate rainfall to allow natural farming but had minimal produce compared to southern Mesopotamia.

Concept of irrigation canals in Mesopotamia

Under the harsh condition of the desert, Mesopotamians had developed a successful system of agriculture. The rivers had little or no relation to the domesticated circle of growth. The climate was dry, with the variation of inter-annual rainfall very brutal and a thin soil that was saline to support crop farming. However, with slit on the flat plains on the south and rivers scales, it was easy to dig irrigation canals and set-up large fields under irrigation. The areas were much more productive but required intensive labor throughout.

Before the invention of the plow, Ancient Mesopotamian farmers used stone hoes to the plow the fields. The rivers Euphrates and Tigris, which gave rise to the name Mesopotamia, made it convenient and easy for irrigation. They had learned to control the floor of water and used it to practice irrigations to prevent flooding. Water was regulated during the high growing seasons whereby each farmer was allowed some certain amount diverted into the irrigation channels. Irrigation development in Mesopotamia was essential for the settlers. It provided a constant food supply.

2. Writing and Mathematic

Writing is a communication system that involves a representation by graphic marks in a specific language to mean a particular thing or message. The oldest form of writing, known as the Cuneiform Script , was created in Mesopotamia about 3200BC. The name came from the Latin word " cuneus ," meaning wedge-shaped . The writing of wedge-like impression was written on wet clay to form word sign. Representation of word concept was done later in what was called Phonograms . The system was used to cover mundane issues such as tabulating farm products and other produce. All civilizations in ancient Mesopotamia used a cuneiform writing system until the alphabetical system was introduced in about 100 BC replaced it.

Ancient Mesopotamians used clay tablets, which were immune to the ravaging impacts of time. Modern scholars have dedicated their time to master the language. However, it has proven that the language is by no means easy to decode it. Somewhat it has been discovered about half-a-million cuneiform artifacts from Mesopotamia, but just a fraction of them has been translated so far. The odds are there will be many more surprises.

The pro-cuneiform is the oldest cuneiform tablet ever discovered. It was in the form of a pictogram, and it addressed the subject of flood, battle, and king. The subjects became complicated, as it switched toward the quest for immortality and gods' will. The stylus stroke was a more simplified representation by 3000 BC, which were further simplified Rebus by eliminating the value of phonetic and expressed the relationship in syntax and grammar .

In addition, Mesopotamians developed mathematics. The beginning of civilization led to the growth of trade . Therefore, there was a need for a system to count units of commerce, leading to the concept of counting. The counting method was based on the base of 60 and is referred to as the Sexagesimal system. The system was very significant in the development 60 minutes in an hour and 60 seconds in a minute. Additionally, it was used in concepts like a 12-month year and 360-degree circle.

The number system, which is still in use but modified, was passed down to the Babylonians. With the number 60, it was possible to break down it more specific factors 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60. Necessity led to the development of mathematics to cater to the needs of trade, taxation, and record keeping. Additionally, the assignment of symbols to large numbers was essential to track time and prepare for the lunar calendar. To denote number 1 , they used a small clay cone. To represent number 10, they use a ball, and a colossal clay cone was used to describe the number 60. The Sumerians invented an elemental abacus between 2700 and 2300 BC.

3. Concept of Cartography, Astrology, and Astronomy

The oldest map surviving discovered was made around 2300 BC in Babylon. The maps were simple sketches made on clay tablets. It shows a simple illustration of the Akkadian's region in Mesopotamia. The ancient cartography covered a small area used for hunting, military camping, and trading . An example of a simple map was a clay tablets of around 18 x 21 cm which was used by Sumerians to identify features on their locality. Nuzi's ancient city map was produced between 2360 and 2180 BC, and it is likely the earliest road map. It illustrates the progressive expertise of the ancient Mesopotamian cartographers in topography and survey.

Although the first map was developed in Mesopotamia, the Romans and Greek cartography was more advanced and brought the spherical earth concept. The philosophers in Greek developed the idea of spherical earth around 350 BC that further led to the development of the world map.

Humans have made more remarkable strides when it comes to astrology. The first step toward the realization of this happened in ancient Mesopotamia. The Sumerians had documented the movement of planetary objects, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn . They had formulated a way to foretell about future battles and fortunes using astrology. Ancient astrologist observed planet locations and advised people on political or social positions according to the positions. Astonishingly, it has been recently discovered that the Sumerians had precisely forecast the planets' movement . That is about 2000 years before any other civilization could do so. The Greeks absorbed astronomical concepts of patterns like Sagittarius, Leo, and Capricorn from the Sumerians and Babylonians, which are still used to date.

Concepts of constellations were used on daily activates in ancient Mesopotamia, for instance, to mark time for sowing and harvesting crops. In addition, they mapped movements in the sky, the moon, the stars, and the Sun, which they used to foretell Steller events like an eclipse.

Mesopotamia people gave us the concept of Astrology and Astronomy. Those people were very creative and used to think about every field of life in depth. Most of the people were used to go to mountains and the highest reachable points to figure out what was happening in the sky and how the sun and stars were working.

They worked on astrology and astronomy very deeply and invented several ways to get information about these things. There were also aware of the connection between stars and fate. They used to believe that each bad and pleasant day was affiliated with a star. They believed that any happening with a person was due to stars movements. Their information about astrology and astronomy was so reliable that today we use some of their provided methods and formulas to figure out different things and happenings outside of this Rarth.

The chariot was another great invention by the people of Mesopotamia. It was originally based on two wheels which were attached with an animal like a horse. The two-wheeled system was attached to the animal using wood and ropes. This was considered the best way of travelling that time because no other travelling source was available except animals. After the initial design, the Chariot was upgraded to four and six wheels which had more capacity for passengers. It was faster due to its many wheel system. Different civilizations and nations used Chariot in its basic and advanced forms. Even the kings and most influential persons in some regions used Chariots in their times. Today you can also see chariots in some regions around the world.

Top Inventions and Discoveries of Mesopotamia: Map

A map is the most common way to find a place anywhere around the world. Whether you are new to a specific region or you are just looking for any new place around you, maps become very handy in such situations. Mesopotamia people invented the maps.

Scientists have found the oldest map in the history which is around 2300 BC old. A research team discovered this map in the northern Iraq region which was originally Mesopotamia. They found a map on clay tabs which was created by pointing the main regions, places, and noticeable areas. For example, the grounds, forest, and the living site were included in that map. It tells us that Mesopotamia people invented maps which are still in use. They designed a simple diagram which was created on clay. Now, we have the advanced forms of the map like in our mobiles and computer systems.

6. Metal fabrication

Metal fabrication was started by the Mesopotamia and the people around its region. Mesopotamia people were so advanced in every field that they invented and discovered a lot of metallic things which are still in use. They were advanced and had great knowledge about metals like copper, gold and iron.

They not only had knowledge about metals, but they also invented metal fabrication and made a lot of pots, weapons and food holders. First metal to be fabricated was copper which was fabricated several thousand years ago. People of Mesopotamia casted it in the mold to make some useful things. Initially, they only made some simple plates and weapons. Later on, they started making vessels, jugs, and jars which were a bit more complicated.

7. Concept of urbanization

The people of Mesopotamia invented the concept of urbanization for the first time in history. They proposed the concept of living in a specific part or place of land. This was only possible while using agriculture which was also invented by the people of Mesopotamia. If there was not enough food, they have to move to another place to feed animals and humans. So, they started a small urban area in which a specific amount of people used to live.

They had their own way of the living, transport system and even a complete tax system. Small bricks were used to make the urban areas in which small houses and fields were included. Later on, this urbanization concept became very popular all around the world and almost every civilization adopted this concept. So, it was a fantastic concept given by the Mesopotamia region.

Top Inventions and Discoveries of Mesopotamia: Time

The Mesopotamia civilization invented the concept of time. They gave the idea of time at first. Studies show that the people of Mesopotamia region originally invented the time format which we are using today. It is also a fact that some previous civilizations and nations also gave the concept of time. However, the most applied and understandable concept was based on 60 system which is still in use.

Not just the concept of time, they also invented the thought of past, present, and future. The purpose behind this was to figure out the circumstances. The Mesopotamia people carefully noticed the time for several months and years. They figured out that there are some regular intervals between days and nights which change with different weather. Firstly, they invented a simple system which was only consisted of time divisions. Later on, they developed an advanced time system which included seconds, minutes and hours. Each of these units was well defined. At present, we are currently using the same time concept which was first known as base-60 time method as it consisted 60 seconds and 60 minutes in it.

9. Board games

The people of Mesopotamia participated in entertainment events and games. They used to play a different type of board games at their time. The oldest board game was found by a team which is said to be more than 4000 years old. It consisted of small painted stones which had different patterns on it.

Some dice are found with different numbering and painting which were used with the stone board. The first board game was originated from the Mesopotamia region. Just after its invention, people started making and playing such board games in different cultures and civilizations. It was the only entertainment at that time as no internet, or other facilities were available.

Top Inventions and Discoveries of Mesopotamia: Soap

The credit of soap invention also goes to the Mesopotamia people. The oldest soap evidence was found and believed to exists back to 2800 BC. Several thousand years ago, when different civilizations and cultures made some of the modern inventions, the Mesopotamia region invented a cleaning material which is now called soap. They made it by mixing the animal fats with wood ash in a particular amount along with water added to it.

They used soap to clean clothes or other stuff which they considered as dirty and unclean. Different types of solvents were created with different formulas and different cleaning capabilities. However, all of those were useful and adopted by people. Their soap compositions traveled all around the world and helped different nations of the world.

11. Law system

Another great invention of Mesopotamia people was a law system. When there was enough advancement in almost every field of life, crimes and misunderstandings began to happen. People who used to live in urban areas and other places had a different mindset. That's why conflict started.

Crimes began due to the uncommon resource distribution among the people. To handle this situation, Mesopotamia people invented a system which they named as law system. This was the complete method of handling crimes and misunderstanding. They designed a proper code of conduct which was consisted of different terms related to each field of life. Those terms were then distributed and taught to everyone to bring peace in their culture and society.

Mesopotamian inventions made the first strides toward the elementary things that humans needed to settle down, such as agriculture writing and the concept of Cartography and astrology. The above listed inventions and discoveries are just the tip of an iceberg; many more inventions were made in ancient Mesopotamia, including urbanization, chariot, time calculation, etc. Mesopotamian science and technology influenced subsequent disciplines of other cultures that have further advanced them. These developments in history, science, and technology still impact the world today.

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Uncovering a 4,000-year-old mesopotamian boat.

Ancient boat uncovered from the ruins of Uruk

The Mesopotamian boat of Uruk during excavation. Courtesy German Archaeological Institute.

With archaeologists returning to Iraq, many finds are coming to light, including a 4,000-year-old Mesopotamian boat from the ancient Sumerian city of Uruk. According to a press release by the German Archaeological Institute , the boat was discovered largely intact by a joint German-Iraqi team. The Mesopotamian boat was constructed out of organic materials covered in bitumen, a substance made from crude oil and commonly used for waterproofing across Mesopotamia. This construction technique is similar to that used in the building of Noah’s ark (Genesis 6:14). Since the boat’s burial, however, the organic material has completely decomposed, leaving behind only the outer bitumen cover, which served to preserve the boat’s original shape and size.

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After uncovering the boat, the team set about photographing it and creating three-dimensional models using photogrammetry . The boat measures approximately 23 feet long and 4.5 feet wide. After preliminary studies, the team suggested that the Mesopotamian boat most likely became lodged in the loose soil of the Euphrates riverbank and, over time, was covered with silt and sediment. From the boat’s archaeological context, the team determined that it is likely around 4,000 years old, which would place it toward the end of the Ur III Period (c. 2112–2004 B.C.E.) or the beginning of the Isin-Larsa Period (c. 2004–1763 B.C.E.). Due to fear of additional damage, the team covered the boat in a clay and plaster shell before excavating it completely. The boat is expected to be brought to the Iraq Museum in Baghdad where it will be studied and displayed.

Aerial view showing the outline of the Uruk boat. Courtesy German Archaeological Institute.

Ancient Uruk

The Mesopotamian city of Uruk—Unug in Sumerian—was one of the oldest and most powerful cities in the land of Sumer (southern Iraq). Although in antiquity the city sat along the banks of the Euphrates River, Uruk is now covered in sand, the bed of the Euphrates having long ago shifted its course. The city rose to great power in the fourth millennium and, for a time, it was possibly the largest city in the ancient world. According to the Epic of Gilgamesh , Uruk was also the royal seat of the tale’s eponymous mythical king. As described in the epic (tablet 11), Gilgamesh met an immortal man named Utnapishtim, who had been instructed by the gods to build a giant circular boat to save himself from a flood that would be sent by the gods. In the 1800s, scholars proposed that Uruk could be the biblical city of Erech, the second city built by Nimrod in Genesis 10:10.

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Ancient Mesopotamia

Mesopotamians and their daily lives

Ancient Mesopotamia Transportation

Mesopotamia was quite low on natural resources and they needed to trade for many of their day-to-day items. Some of the things they traded were Grain, Oils, and textiles, and in return, they got timber, wine, and precious metals and stones. Some merchants worked locally and just strapped their goods on their back or carried them in a sack; they would often trade small amounts of grain, meat, fish, and precious stones.

Others traveled from some parts of Mesopotamia to completely different regions such as Babylonia, Assyria, and Sumeria. They also had different means of transport for different types of goods.

The earliest known use of the wheel was a potter’s wheel that was used at Ur in Mesopotamia (part of modern day Iraq} as early as 3500 BC. The first use of the wheel for transportation was probably on Mesopotamian chariots in 3200 BC. It is interesting to note that wheels may have had industrial or manufacturing applications before they were used on vehicles.

During the Old Babylonian period (about 2000-1600 B.C.) merchants from southern Mesopotamia travelled to cities and distant lands to trade their goods. Many different types of transport were used for carrying goods from place to place. Merchants used several different methods for transporting their goods depending on what they were transporting. For example, grain was quite bulky and was best transported on a boat, whereas precious stones were likely to be small, so they could be transported on foot or by donkey.

They made the world’s first boats, using the canal system, for easy water borne transportation of people, goods, and cattle. They also engaged in deep-water seafaring, using a variety of ships to reach faraway lands; in search of metals, rare woods, and other materials. They produced many specialized sea vessels. Over land they used carts and chariots, as well as their air ships.

The Mesopotamians were clever people and used interesting types of boats. The Mesopotamians used three types of boats: wooden boats with a triangular sail, the turnip or Guffa boat which was shaped like a tub, made of reeds and covered with skin, and the kalakku which was a raft of timbers supported by inflated animal skins. The invention of the wheel by the Sumerians revolutionalized the transportation. Wagons could be used to carry heavy loads.

The rivers, Tigris and Euphrates, helped in water transportation of the goods. It was more economical. Wood went into the manufacture of boats, furniture and ships. As the boats had to face strong river currents, they were frequently damaged.

This article gives information on: Ancient Mesopotamian Transportation

Five Surprising Ways Mesopotamia Shaped the World

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One of the most fascinating and accomplished civilizations in history was the fruitful region of Mesopotamia. Frequently called the “Cradle of Civilization,” Mesopotamia was home to some of the earliest and most intriguing innovations, making it a fascinating civilization to study. The Mesopotamians were a remarkable civilization, boasting not only skilled architects but also brilliant astronomers. Their cultural legacy is a testament to their impressive achievements.

1. Mesopotamia's Ingenious Inventions: From the Wheel to Towering Ziggurats

The Mesopotamians were a highly innovative civilization, responsible for many inventions that had a significant impact on human civilization. For one, they were among the first to use the wheel. The invention of the wheel not only revolutionized transportation by enabling the use of carts and chariots, but it also transformed agriculture by facilitating the use of plows, demonstrating the far-reaching impact of Mesopotamian ingenuity.

The invention of the wheel around 3500 BC had a significant impact on the economy of Mesopotamia. The wheel allowed for the transportation of goods and materials over longer distances, which in turn led to the growth of trade and commerce. Using the wheel made it easier for armies to move and transport their equipment, which played a crucial role in the expansion and defense of the Mesopotamian empire.

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Beyond the wheel, Mesopotamian architects and builders were also highly skilled at constructing impressive structures such as ziggurats and temples. They frequently built arch and dome structures that could support the weight of large buildings. Their advanced irrigation systems, consisting of canals and ditches, helped to manage the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and allowed their people to settle in large urban areas and expand agriculture.

While it is unclear if they were the first, Mesopotamians are also documented as some of the earliest people to use sailboats. The Mesopotamians were skilled in building riverboats, which were used for fishing, transportation and trade. These boats were made of reeds , which were lightweight, buoyant and could easily be repaired. They later developed more advanced boats made of wood, with curved hulls and multiple decks.

The Standard of Ur, from circa 2500 BC, includes a depiction of a cart with wheels. Ancient Mesopotamia was one of the first civilizations to use the wheel. ( Public domain )

2. Mesopotamia Was Home to One-Seventh of the Wonders of the Ancient World

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the most famous and mysterious wonders of the ancient world . The gardens were said to have been built in Mesopotamia in the city of Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar II sometime during the 6th century BC.

According to legend, the gardens were built as a gift for Nebuchadnezzar's wife, Amytis of Media, who was homesick for the lush greenery of her homeland. He designed the hanging gardens to resemble a mountain with terraced gardens, waterfalls and exotic plants. They were irrigated using one of Mesopotamia’s complex systems of pumps and canals, which brought water from the nearby Euphrates River.

Although the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were described in many ancient texts, including the writings of Greek historians like Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, there is no definitive evidence that they ever existed. Archaeological excavations of the site have not uncovered any remains of the gardens, and there are no surviving descriptions or depictions of the gardens from the time they were supposed to have been built.

Despite this lack of evidence, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon remain one of the most enduring and romanticized symbols of Mesopotamia and the ancient world as a whole. The mysterious gardens have inspired countless works of art, literature and popular culture, and have captured the imagination of people for centuries.

Representational image of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, remembered as one of the wonders of the ancient world. ( Kishore Newton / Adobe Stock)

3. Mesopotamians Implemented the World’s Earliest Code of Law

The Code of Hammurabi was one of the first legal codes in the world and is considered a significant achievement of ancient Mesopotamia. It was created by the Babylonian king Hammurabi sometime around 1754 BC.

The Code of Hammurabi was based on the principle of “an eye for an eye,” which meant that the punishment for a crime should be proportional to the offense committed. It consists of 282 laws and punishments for crimes, which were inscribed on a seven-foot-tall stone pillar. The laws covered a wide range of topics, including family law, property law and criminal law. The punishments for crimes were often severe, ranging from fines and compensation to amputation and death, depending on the crime committed.

The Code of Hammurabi was designed to provide a framework for society and government, and was meant to establish a sense of justice and fairness among the people. It was also intended to reinforce the power and authority of the king, by demonstrating his ability to impose order and stability within the kingdom.

Written in cuneiform , an ancient form of writing that involved pressing a stylus into clay tablets to form wedge-shaped markings, the Code of Hammurabi was also an influential aspect of Mesopotamian civilization. Its influence can be seen in later legal codes, such as Roman law and Jewish law.

The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text written in Akkadian. The Mesopotamian code of law was discovered inscribed on a basalt stele, known as the Stele of Hammurabi, now housed at the Louvre Museum in Paris. (Rama / CC BY-SA 3.0 FR )

4. Mesopotamians Used Math and Astronomy to Shape Modern Science

In addition to their impressive design and construction skills, the Mesopotamians were skilled observers of the night sky and made important discoveries about the movement of celestial bodies. They developed a system of mathematics based on the number 60, which they used to measure time, angles and distances. This system is still used today. In fact, this is the reason for why an hour is considered to have 60 minutes in it.

One of the most important Mesopotamian contributions to astronomy was the development of a system to track the movement of the stars and planets. They divided the night sky into twelve regions, which corresponded to the twelve lunar months of the calendar. The Mesopotamians also developed a system of astrology, which they believed could predict future events based on the positions of the stars and planets.

The Mesopotamians later combined these discoveries to divide the day into 24 hours, based on the rotation of the Earth. They also used sundials and water clocks to measure time, which helped to regulate daily activities such as work and worship.

5. They Made One of the Earliest Calendar Systems

In addition to dividing time in terms of minutes and hours, the Mesopotamians developed an early calendar system based on lunar cycles. In fact, Mesopotamia is credited with the development of one of the earliest known calendar systems in human history. The Mesopotamian calendar system was based on the cycles of the moon and is considered one of their greatest creations.

The Mesopotamian calendar consisted of 12 lunar months, each with 29 or 30 days, which added up to a total of 354 days per year. To account for the extra 11 days in the solar year, the Mesopotamians added a 13th month to the calendar every three years.

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Their calendar was also divided into two seasons, each consisting of six months. The first season was called the “Summer Season” and included the months of Nisan, Iyar, Sivan, Tammuz, Av and Elul. The second season was called the “Winter Season” and included the months of Tishrei, Marcheshvan, Kislev, Tevet, Shevat and Adar.

The Mesopotamians not only used their calendar for keeping track of time, but also for religious and agricultural purposes. Many Mesopotamian festivals and rituals were based on the cycles of the moon and the changing seasons, and the calendar helped to regulate agricultural activities such as planting and harvesting. Their calendar was so popular that it was later adopted by other civilizations, including the Greeks and Romans.

Ancient Practices That Captivate Even Today

Mesopotamia was a civilization of great innovation and achievement, with many fascinating facts and contributions to human history. From their inventions and architectural marvels to their legal codes and astronomy, the Mesopotamians were remarkable people whose legacy continues to influence our modern world.

Their innovations were so influential that their calendar system and several of their mathematical concepts are still used today. Clearly, Mesopotamia truly earned its reputation as the cradle of civilization , and its impact on human history will continue to be studied and appreciated for years to come.

Top image: Representational image of a ziggurat tower structure in ancient Mesopotamia. Source: top images / Adobe Stock

By Lex Leigh

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National Geographic. No date. “Mesopotamia (Collection)” in National Geographic Education . Available at: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-mesopotamia/

Shuttleworth, M. 10 October 2010. “Mesopotamian astronomy” in Explorable . Available at: https://explorable.com/mesopotamian-astronomy

Steele, J. M. 2014. “Mesopotamian calendars” in Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, 1841–1845 . Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_189

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Mesopotamia

By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 24, 2023 | Original: November 30, 2017

Mesopotamia is a region of southwest Asia in the Tigris and Euphrates river system that benefitted from the area’s climate and geography to host the beginnings of human civilization. Its history is marked by many important inventions that changed the world, including the concept of time, math, the wheel, sailboats, maps and writing. Mesopotamia is also defined by a changing succession of ruling bodies from different areas and cities that seized control over a period of thousands of years.

Where is Mesopotamia?

Mesopotamia is located in the region now known as the Middle East, which includes parts of southwest Asia and lands around the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Fertile Crescent , an area also known as “Cradle of Civilization” for the number of innovations that arose from the early societies in this region, which are among some of the earliest known human civilizations on earth.

The word “mesopotamia” is formed from the ancient words “meso,” meaning between or in the middle of, and “potamos,” meaning river. Situated in the fertile valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the region is now home to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey and Syria .

Mesopotamian Civilization

Humans first settled in Mesopotamia in the Paleolithic era. By 14,000 B.C., people in the region lived in small settlements with circular houses.

Five thousand years later, these houses formed farming communities following the domestication of animals and the development of agriculture, most notably irrigation techniques that took advantage of the proximity of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Agricultural progress was the work of the dominant Ubaid culture, which had absorbed the Halaf culture before it.

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Ancient Mesopotamia

These scattered agrarian communities started in the northern part of the ancient Mesopotamian region and spread south, continuing to grow for several thousand years until forming what modern humans would recognize as cities, which were considered the work of the Sumer people.

Uruk was the first of these cities, dating back to around 3200 B.C. It was a mud brick metropolis built on the riches brought from trade and conquest and featured public art, gigantic columns and temples. At its peak, it had a population of some 50,000 citizens.

Sumerians are also responsible for the earliest form of written language, cuneiform, with which they kept detailed clerical records.

By 3000 B.C., Mesopotamia was firmly under the control of the Sumerian people. Sumer contained several decentralized city-states—Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Uruk, Kish and Ur.

The first king of a united Sumer is recorded as Etana of Kish. It’s unknown whether Etana really existed, as he and many of the rulers listed in the Sumerian King List that was developed around 2100 B.C. are all featured in Sumerian mythology as well.

Etana was followed by Meskiaggasher, the king of the city-state Uruk. A warrior named Lugalbanda took control around 2750 B.C.

Gilgamesh, the legendary subject of the Epic of Gilgamesh , is said to be Lugalbanda’s son. Gilgamesh is believed to have been born in Uruk around 2700 B.C.

The Epic of Gilgamesh is considered to be the earliest great work of literature and the inspiration for some of the stories in the Bible. In the epic poem, Gilgamesh goes on an adventure with a friend to the Cedar Forest, the land of the Gods in Mesopotamian mythology. When his friend is slain, Gilgamesh goes on a quest to discover the secret of eternal life, finding: "Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands."

King Lugalzagesi was the final king of Sumer, falling to Sargon of Akkad, a Semitic people, in 2334 B.C. They were briefly allies, conquering the city of Kish together, but Lugalzagesi’s mercenary Akkadian army was ultimately loyal to Sargon.

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Sargon and the Akkadians

The Akkadian Empire existed from 2234-2154 B.C. under the leadership of the now-titled Sargon the Great. It was considered the world’s first multicultural empire with a central government.

Little is known of Sargon’s background, but legends give him a similar origin to the Biblical story of Moses. He was at one point an officer who worked for the king of Kish, and Akkadia was a city that Sargon himself established. When the city of Uruk invaded Kish, Sargon took Kish from Uruk and was encouraged to continue with conquest.

Sargon expanded his empire through military means, conquering all of Sumer and moving into what is now Syria. Under Sargon, trade beyond Mesopotamian borders grew, and architecture became more sophisticated, notably the appearance of ziggurats, flat-topped buildings with a pyramid shape and steps.

The final king of the Akkadian Empire, Shar-kali-sharri, died in 2193 B.C., and Mesopotamia went through a century of unrest, with different groups struggling for control.

Among these groups were the Gutian people, barbarians from the Zagros Mountains. The Gutian rule is considered a disorderly one that caused a severe downturn in the empire’s prospects.

In 2100 B.C. the city of Ur attempted to establish a dynasty for a new empire. The ruler of Ur-Namma, the king of the city of Ur, brought Sumerians back into control after Utu-hengal, the leader of the city of Uruk, defeated the Gutians.

Under Ur-Namma, the first code of law in recorded history, The Code of Ur-Nammu, appeared. Ur-Namma was attacked by both the Elamites and the Amorites and defeated in 2004 B.C.

The Babylonians

Choosing Babylon as the capital, the Amorites took control and established Babylonia .

Kings were considered deities and the most famous of these was Hammurabi , who ruled 1792–1750 B.C. Hammurabi worked to expand the empire, and the Babylonians were almost continually at war.

Hammurabi’s most famous contribution is his list of laws, better known as the Code of Hammurabi , devised around 1772 B.C.

Hammurabi’s innovation was not just writing down the laws for everyone to see, but making sure that everyone throughout the empire followed the same legal codes, and that governors in different areas did not enact their own. The list of laws also featured recommended punishments to ensure that every citizen had the right to the same justice.

In 1750 B.C. the Elamites conquered the city of Ur. Together with the control of the Amorites, this conquest marked the end of Sumerian culture.

The Hittites

The Hittites, who were centered around Anatolia and Syria, conquered the Babylonians around 1595 B.C.

Smelting was a significant contribution of the Hittites, allowing for more sophisticated weaponry that lead them to expand the empire even further. Their attempts to keep the technology to themselves eventually failed, and other empires became a match for them.

The Hittites pulled out shortly after sacking Babylon, and the Kassites took control of the city. Hailing from the mountains east of Mesopotamia, their period of rule saw immigrants from India and Europe arriving, and travel sped up thanks to the use of horses with chariots and carts.

The Kassites abandoned their own culture after a couple of generations of dominance, allowing themselves to be absorbed into Babylonian civilization.

The Assyrians

The Assyrian Empire under the leadership of Ashur-uballit I rose around 1365 B.C. in the areas between the lands controlled by the Hittites and the Kassites.

Around 1220 B.C., King Tukulti-Ninurta I aspired to rule all of Mesopotamia and seized Babylon. The Assyrian Empire continued to expand over the next two centuries, moving into modern-day Palestine and Syria.

Under the rule of Ashurnasirpal II in 884 B.C., the empire created a new capitol, Nimrud, built from the spoils of conquest and brutality that made Ashurnasirpal II a hated figure.

His son Shalmaneser spent the majority of his reign fighting off an alliance between Syria, Babylon and Egypt, and conquering Israel . One of his sons rebelled against him, and Shalmaneser sent another son, Shamshi-Adad, to fight for him. Three years later, Shamshi-Adad ruled.

A new dynasty began in 722 B.C. when Sargon II seized power. Modeling himself on Sargon the Great, he divided the empire into provinces and kept the peace.

His undoing came when the Chaldeans attempted to invade and Sargon II sought an alliance with them. The Chaldeans made a separate alliance with the Elamites, and together they took Babylonia.

Sargon II lost to the Chaldeans but switched to attacking Syria and parts of Egypt and Gaza, embarking on a spree of conquest before eventually dying in battle against the Cimmerians from Russia.

Sargon II’s grandson Esarhaddon ruled from 681 to 669 B.C. and went on a destructive campaign of conquest through Ethiopia, Palestine and Egypt, destroying cities he rampaged through after looting them. Esarhaddon struggled to rule his expanded empire. A paranoid leader, he suspected many in his court of conspiring against him and had them killed.

His son Ashurbanipal is considered to be the final great ruler of the Assyrian empire. Ruling from 669 to 627 B.C., he faced a rebellion in Egypt, losing the territory, and from his brother, the king of Babylonia, whom he defeated. Ashurbanipal is best remembered for creating Mesopotamia’s first library in what is now Nineveh, Iraq. It is the world’s oldest known library, predating the Library of Alexandria by several hundred years.

Nebuchadnezzar

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In 626 B.C. the throne was seized by Babylonian public official Nabopolassar, ushering in the rule of the Semitic dynasty from Chaldea. In 616 B.C. Nabopolassar attempted to take Assyria but failed.

His son Nebuchadnezzar reigned over the Babylonian Empire following an invasion effort in 614 B.C. by King Cyaxares of Media that pushed the Assyrians further away.

Nebuchadnezzar is known for his ornate architecture, especially the Hanging Gardens of Babylon , the Walls of Babylon and the Ishtar Gate. Under his rule, women and men had equal rights.

Nebuchadnezzar is also responsible for the conquest of Jerusalem , which he destroyed in 586 B.C., taking its inhabitants into captivity. He appears in the Old Testament because of this action.

The Persian Empire

Persian Emperor Cyrus II seized power during the reign of Nabonidus in 539 B.C. Nabonidus was such an unpopular king that Mesopotamians did not rise to defend him during the invasion.

Babylonian culture is considered to have ended under Persian rule, following a slow decline of use in cuneiform and other cultural hallmarks.

By the time Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire in 331 B.C., most of the great cities of Mesopotamia no longer existed and the culture had been long overtaken. Eventually, the region was taken by the Romans in A.D. 116 and finally Arabic Muslims in A.D. 651.

Mesopotamian Gods

Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, with followers worshipping several main gods and thousands of minor gods. The three main gods were Ea (Sumerian: Enki), the god of wisdom and magic, Anu (Sumerian: An), the sky god, and Enlil (Ellil), the god of earth, storms and agriculture and the controller of fates. Ea is the creator and protector of humanity in both the Epic of Gilgamesh and the story of the Great Flood.

In the latter story, Ea made humans out of clay, but the God Enlil sought to destroy humanity by creating a flood. Ea had the humans build an ark and mankind was spared. If this story sounds familiar, it should; foundational Mesopotamian religious stories about the Garden of Eden, the Great Flood, and the Creation of the Tower of Babel found their way into the Bible, and the Mesopotamian religion influenced both Christianity and Islam.

Each Mesopotamian City had its own patron god or goddess, and most of what we know of them has been passed down through clay tablets describing Mesopotamian religious beliefs and practices. A painted terracotta plaque from 1775 B.C. gives an example of the sophistication of Babylonian art, portraying either the goddess Ishtar or her sister Ereshkigal, accompanied by night creatures.

Mesopotamian Art

Kneeling bull holding a spouted vessel, Mesopotamia art

While making art predates civilization in Mesopotamia, the innovations there include creating art on a larger scale, often in the context of their grandiose and complex architecture, and frequently employing metalwork.

One of the earliest examples of metalwork in art comes from southern Mesopotamia, a silver statuette of a kneeling bull from 3000 B.C. Before this, painted ceramics and limestone were the most common art forms.

Another metal-based work, a goat standing on its hind legs and leaning on the branches of a tree, featuring gold and copper along with other materials, was found in the Great Death Pit at Ur and dates to 2500 B.C.

Mesopotamian art often depicted its rulers and the glories of their lives. Also created around 2500 B.C. in Ur is the intricate Standard of Ur, a shell and limestone structure that features an early example of complex pictorial narrative, depicting a history of war and peace.

In 2230 B.C., Akkadian King Naram-Sin was the subject of an elaborate work in limestone that depicts a military victory in the Zagros Mountains and presents Naram-Sin as divine.

Among the most dynamic forms of Mesopotamian art are the reliefs of the Assyrian kings in their palaces, notably from Ashurbanipal’s reign around 635 B.C. One famous relief in his palace in Nimrud shows him leading an army into battle, accompanied by the winged god Assur.

Ashurbanipal is also featured in multiple reliefs that portray his frequent lion-hunting activity. An impressive lion image also figures into the Ishtar Gate in 585 B.C., during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and fashioned from glazed bricks.

Mesopotamian art returned to the public eye in the 21st century when museums in Iraq were looted during conflicts there. Many pieces went missing, including a 4,300-year-old bronze mask of an Akkadian king, jewelry from Ur, a solid gold Sumerian harp, 80,000 cuneiform tablets and numerous other irreplaceable items.

Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization. Paul Kriwaczek . Ancient Mesopotamia. Leo Oppenheim . Ancient Mesopotamia: This History, Our History. University of Chicago . Mesopotamia 8000-2000 B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art . 30,000 Years of Art. Editors at Phaidon . Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses. UPenn.edu .

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IMAGES

7 Major Mesopotamian Inventions
Mesopotamia inventions by Alexis Hyatt
Ancient Mesopotamian Sailboat
11 invenções e descobertas da Mesopotâmia
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Ancient Mesopotamian Sailboat

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COMMENTS

The Use of the Sail in Ancient Mesopotamia
The Use of the Sail in Ancient Mesopotamia
Mesopotamian Reed Boats: The Earliest Boat Builders
Mesopotamian Reed Boats Changed the Stone Age
Ancient Mesopotamia Sailboats: An Introduction
Five thousand years ago Mesopotamians started using sailing boats. Since Mesopotamia was situated between two famous rivers, namely the Euphrates and the Tigris, they needed water transportation for travel and trade. Some of the important items they are credited with inventing include wheels, chariots, sailboats and cuneiform (the earliest form ...
Mesopotamian Inventions
Mesopotamian Inventions
9 Ancient Sumerian Inventions That Changed the World
9 Ancient Sumerian Inventions That Changed the World
Top 11 Inventions and Discoveries of Mesopotamia
Here are the top 11 inventions and discoveries of ancient Mesopotamia: Contents show. 11. The Wheel. The first wheel wasn't used for transportation. The wheel was first invented as a potter's wheel and was believed to have existed around 3500 BC. Even though the wheel is believed to have first existed in ancient Mesopotamia, the oldest ...
Mesopotamian Science and Technology
Mesopotamian Science and Technology
7 Major Mesopotamian Inventions
The Sailboat. The invention of the sailboat enhanced trade across borders. Image source: Mesopotamianblue55. Ancient Mesopotamian engineers got more determined to break boundaries and make their lives easier and better. With the invention of the animal-drawn wheels and chariots, Mesopotamians could comfortably travel by land to farther places.
PDF Boats and ships and the world's first cities in Mesopotamia
The Late Uruk period (ca. 3600- ï í ì ì E: boat symbolism in the world [s first city. Uruk, ca. 3100 BCE The ancient urban centres of Uruk and Ur were much closer to the sea than they are today. White Temple of the Anu Ziggurat Eanna ceremonial precinct city wall.
Top 12 Inventions and Discoveries of Ancient Babylonia
Top 12 Inventions and Discoveries of Ancient Babylonia
Ancient Mesopotamian Inventions That Are Still Used Today
The Sailboat Sailboats in the background of the sunset over the sea. ... Now available on cell phones, this advanced method of tracking days is another one of Mesopotamia's amazing inventions. Although timekeeping was around for many years, the Sumerians of Mesopotamia were the first to create an actual calendar. Based on their advanced ...
Major Inventions in Ancient Mesopotamia
It is interesting to study their technological innovations and scientific advances. The two rivers Tigris and Euphrates necessitated the invention of sail boats and canals. The people of Mesopotamia were discoverers of variety of things like the plough, cuneiform script, the algebra system, the calendar etc. The Mesopotamians observed the sky ...
Top Inventions and Discoveries of Mesopotamia
The area, also referred to as "Cradle of Civilization," is located in the region now known as the Middle East. It is very significant in terms of human civilization and inventions that changed the world, as we know it today. Mesopotamia inventions include concepts like writing, maps, sailboat, math, and time.
The Mesopotamian Wheel
Sumerians are believed to have invented the wheel. The three great contributions of the Mesopotamian civilisation to the world are the Sailboats, the system of cuneiform writing and the wheel. Wheel was a significant invention as it revolutionised the system of transportation and thereby communication. The origin of wheel can be traced back to 3500 BC.
Trade in Ancient Mesopotamia
Trade in Ancient Mesopotamia
Ancient maritime history
Ancient maritime history
Uncovering a 4,000-Year-Old Mesopotamian Boat
From the boat's archaeological context, the team determined that it is likely around 4,000 years old, which would place it toward the end of the Ur III Period (c. 2112-2004 B.C.E.) or the beginning of the Isin-Larsa Period (c. 2004-1763 B.C.E.). Due to fear of additional damage, the team covered the boat in a clay and plaster shell before ...
Ancient Mesopotamia Transportation
Mesopotamia was quite low on natural resources and they needed to trade for many of their day-to-day items. ... the turnip or Guffa boat which was shaped like a tub, made of reeds and covered with skin, and the kalakku which was a raft of timbers supported by inflated animal skins. The invention of the wheel by the Sumerians revolutionalized ...
Five Surprising Ways Mesopotamia Shaped the World
The invention of the wheel not only revolutionized transportation by enabling the use of carts and chariots, but it also transformed agriculture by facilitating the use of plows, demonstrating the far-reaching impact of Mesopotamian ingenuity. The invention of the wheel around 3500 BC had a significant impact on the economy of Mesopotamia. The ...
Mesopotamia ‑ Map, Gods & Meaning
Mesopotamia - Map, Gods & Meaning | HISTORY
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia - World History Encyclopedia ... Mesopotamia
Mesopotamian Inventions and Technology
Mesopotamian Inventions and Technology | Overview & ...

Mesopotamian Reed Boats Changed the Stone Age

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Why Did the Mesopotamians Need Sailboats?

How were the Sailboats of Mesopotamians Made?

7 Major Mesopotamian Inventions

The Chariot

The Sailboat

The Plow (plough)

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Astronomy and Astrology

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Top 12 Inventions and Discoveries of Ancient Babylonia

1. The First Map

2. Cuneiform

3. Agriculture

4. Urbanization

5. Astrology and Horoscopy

6. The Concept of Time

7. The Sailboat

8. The First Wheel

9. The Chariot

10. The Study of Mathematics

11. The Primitive Plow

12. Art and Architecture

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Ancient Mesopotamian Inventions That Are Still Used Today

Development of Mathematics

The Sailboat

Mass-Produced Bricks

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Top Inventions and Discoveries of Mesopotamia

1. Agriculture and Irrigation

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6. Metal fabrication

7. Concept of urbanization

9. Board games

11. Law system

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Ancient Mesopotamia

Ancient Mesopotamia Transportation

Five Surprising Ways Mesopotamia Shaped the World

1. Mesopotamia's Ingenious Inventions: From the Wheel to Towering Ziggurats