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Beaufort Scale Explained: Understanding the Wind for Sailing

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Last Updated on May 24, 2024 by Boatsetter Team

The Beaufort Wind Scale is a measure of wind speed and accompanying sea state. It is an internationally recognized standardized model created by Irishman Francis Beaufort in 1806, who went on to become a rear admiral in the Royal Navy.

The scale is still used today to estimate wind strengths. Understanding the Beaufort Wind Scale is important for boating and boaters, especially for those looking to go on a sailing adventure .

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Reading the Beaufort Scale

The scale has wind speed levels of 0-12 called Forces . Forces are numbered but also have names and include observations and ranges of wind velocity in kilometers, miles, and knots. The speeds are sustained averages, not wind gusts.

Force 0 means the air is still, and the sea state is calm. Forces 1-2 are light air or a light breeze with wind under six knots or 7 mph. Force 3 is a gentle breeze where flags begin to wave, wind velocity tops at 10 knots, and the water develops small waves.

A moderate breeze is Force 4 with 11-16 knots wind speeds. A fresh breeze is Force 5 (17-21 knots), and a Force 6 strong breeze reaches up to 27 knots. At this point, the water forms large waves with lots of foam present.

Force 3-6 are ideal for sailing! Smaller and lighter boats do well around Force 3, while heavier cruisers will hold their own in Force 6. Most sailboats will be reefing or shortening sail starting in Force 5 around 20 knots. Some of this depends on the point of sail; a boat can take more wind when running with it rather than beating into it.

Beyond Force 7 or a near gale, with 28-33 knots wind speeds, things can get dicey with large waves and flying foam. Force 8 is a full gale with winds 34-40 knots. Force 9 is a strong gale with wind up to 47 knots with toppling wave crests and reduced visibility.

Force 10 is a storm with winds up to 55 knots and a rough sea state. A violent storm is a Force 11 with winds up to 63 knots. In this state, ships can become totally obscured as they fall into wave troughs. Force 12 has winds of 64+ knots and is considered a Category 1 Hurricane.

Hurricanes greater than category 1 are not a part of the Beaufort scale.

Pro sailing tip

While most in the US measure wind force in knots, it’s good to be familiar with the Beaufort Scale, especially since international weather forecasters do use it. It’s an especially useful tool when planning your sailboat trip. Also, remember to stay within Force 3-6 for an easy and safe sail.

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Zuzana Prochazka is an award-winning freelance journalist and photographer with regular contributions to more than a dozen sailing and powerboating magazines and online publications including Southern Boating, SEA, Latitudes & Attitudes and SAIL. She is SAIL magazines Charter Editor and the Executive Director of Boating Writers International. Zuzana serves as judge for SAIL’s Best Boats awards and for Europe’s Best of Boats in Berlin. 

A USCG 100 Ton Master, Zuzana founded and manages a flotilla charter organization called Zescapes that takes guests adventure sailing at destinations worldwide. 

Zuzana has lived in Europe, Africa and the United States and has traveled extensively in South America, the islands of the South Pacific and Mexico. 

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What is the Ideal Wind Speed for Sailing?

Do you like a challenge, or are you a fairweather sailor like me? I've actually checked the facts (and many opinions) and came up with these wind speeds for different sailing styles:

The ideal wind speeds for sailing are:

• most comfortable sailing: 5 - 12 knots
• absolute beginners: under 10 knots - anything under 10 knots prevents capsizing
• for more serious training: 15 - 20 knots
• for heavy offshore boats: 20 - 25 knots - anything under 12 and the boat doesn't even come to life
• 25 knots and up is considered rough for any small/mid-sized boat

The best wind speed for sailing is one that allows you to navigate the boat safely, within your abilities, while at the same time challenging you - without exceeding the hull speed of the boat (making the trip unnecessarily dangerous).

In all honesty: there is no ideal wind speed for everyone all the time. But there is one for you, for this particular moment. It depends on your skill level, boat type, your desires, location, and many other conditions. But if you know what you're after, I can probably give you a good range to work with.

So instead of giving you one answer, I'll try to explain what speeds and different combinations of these factors look like - so you can make your own decision on what's best for you at the moment.

On this page:

Best wind speed for training, when is it too windy, how to try out faster wind speeds, planning your trip, estimate wind speed using waves.

There are two ways to go at it. One is to say you want to play it safe, and in any case, you want to avoid the risk of capsize at all cost. Try and find winds of under 10 knots. This will give you time to get to know your boat and get a feel for the handling.

The other is to say: train as you fight. If you want to be able to sail in all conditions, and not just 7-knots-sunny-beers-and-burgers kinda weather ... you should train in all conditions. I'm a fan of this last one, as I've noticed my improvement go through the roof anytime I overstretch my skills a bit.

As with anything in life, if you want to get skilled, you should expose yourself to some discomfort. I'd say 15 - 20 knots is a great opportunity for learning.

So, if you want to get better, you should:

• know what type of wind you're great in, and enjoy the easy ride
• know what type of wind you're a mess in
• go after that wind speed and up - extend beyond your comfort zone

So in short, if you want to really improve your sailing, train in conditions you suck in. Really consider 20 knots a blessing, not a threat.

Also, if you feel unsafe and in over your head, you're probably right. Trust your intuition. It's a fine line between challenging and hurting yourself.

Easiest wind speed

It's tempting to say: the lower the better. But anyone who's ever tried to get into motion by using any type of sail, knows this is not the case. There should be wind. Sailing in light winds can be difficult and also a drag. I'd say that winds under 6 knots don't do much for me, however, it requires skill also to maneuver with little wind.

The easiest wind speed for sailing is anything from 7 - 10 knots. It's not fast enough to risk capsizing, but it's enough wind to allow for some interesting maneuvers.

Minimum wind speed

The minimum speed for sailing is about 5 knots. Anything under won't get you into motion (except for very small sailboats, such as sunfish). If you can't detect it on a gauge, it won't do much in your sails.

Sailing in light winds is a skill on its own. Most experienced sailors that have learned to rely on feel over the years tend to overreact to any impulses from the wind, losing speed.

If you do find yourself in very light winds, try not to oversteer and to overadjust. Let the sails catch wind and just hang back.

Wind Speeds For Different Boat Types

• Sunfish dinghy: stay under 15 knots - risk of overpowering your boat
• Up to 26' sails best between 10 - 20 knots
• Heavy > 26' sailboats can go out 15 - 25 knots without problems.

First off: you shouldn't try to avoid bad weather, because it's you will run into it at one point - and that's the worst moment to figure out how to deal with all of it. Better to face it now willingly and be prepared.

So when should you definitely avoid getting out?

It's not so much the wind speed, as the height of the waves you should look out for. Wind is easy to manage (simply reef down). As long as you have flat water, it's smooth sailing. The water can be great at 20 knots.

The second thing is gusts over a steady wind. I prefer a 25 knots steady wind over 18 knots wind gusts with waves anytime.

Mid-sized (26') boats start to heel a lot at about 23 knots, so that's when the ride can become uncomfortable. Small boats start to heel a lot sooner.

Also, check the manufacturers specifications of your boat. Every boat is designed with certain conditions in mind, and it will handle best in those conditions. Try to keep to the manufacturers recommendations as much as possible (the hull speed, for example).

Okay, you're planning to go out with 20 knots. If you're feeling a bit uncertain, that's fine, and understandable. How to do it responsibly? Simply build it up slowly.

I recommend by going out reefed down. Reefing is your friend. It takes off the edge. Do a couple of runs. If it feels alright, shake it out and go for it.

Top tip: reef the main sail before you go out. It's way easier than doing it in full winds

It doesn't mean it's too windy when the wind speed requires you to reef down. Reefing is just another tactic to handle your boat comfortably, and I encourage you to use it when you need to. The need to reef over 15 knots is normal.

Having too much sail is always uncomfortable, though many sailors are permanently overcanvassed.

Docking may be the hardest part

The most challenging part of heavy winds is docking and getting in and out of the marina. Always dock at a speed you're comfortable with hitting things (it will happen). When rolling out, use your throttle, be decisive where you want to go, otherwise the winds and waves will take you for a ride. Have a docking plan ready.

Can a Bigger Boat Take More?

Yes and no. It's not all about the size of your boat, the amount of sail is also important. Bigger boats usually have better rigging and systems for dealing with heavier wind. It makes sense: since they require more wind to get into motion, they should be able to handle more wind as well. But it's not true that small boats can't take high wind speeds.

It's important to check the forecast before leaving for your trip. Keep in mind that any forecast predicts average wind speed. Wind gusts will be up to 40% faster, so take this into the equation.

Wave conditions are also an important part. You should know how your boat reacts to short and sharp waves against longer, flatter waves. If you sail offshore, take swell waves into account. Swell waves don't reach enclosed waters, but they do affect their entrances.

Beaufort wind scale to knots - mph - plain English

In planning your trip and checking the forecast you might encounter F5 - F6 - etc. This is the Beaufort wind force scale. It's used to express the speed of wind and is indicated in Force (F). Below you'll find a Beaufort scale conversion table.

If you want to convert your knots to mph yourself, simply multiply by 1.1508:

One knot is about 1.1508 mph

A forecast isn't always right. Not only can the weather change in an instance, they can also be just blatantly wrong. It's always a good idea to know how to check the wind speed yourself. You can use a wind gauge for this, but you can also easily check by looking at the waves.

Reading the waves to estimate wind speed is a quick and reliable way to make sure you don't get in over your head. Water doesn't lie: it always shows. I encourage to take a look at the pictures below to get a sense of the different wave types for each wind force.

Wind force 0

Mirror-like sea, no waves whatsoever.

Wind force 1

Ripples but no white foam.

Wind force 2

Small waves that don't break.

Wind force 3

Large waves, crest begin to break; whitecaps.

Wind force 4

Waves become longer and more pronounced, regular white horses.

Wind force 5

Fairly long waves, many white horses.

Wind force 6

Waves become pronounced and large, many white crests, probably some spray.

Wind force 7

Visible spindrift (spray blown from crests of waves). White foam from breaking waves visible.

Wind force 8

Longer and pretty high waves; lots of spindrift. Very clear streaks of foam that is blown in direction of the wind.

Wind force 9

High waves. Dense streaks of foam along the direction of the wind. Sea begins to roll. So much spray it restricts visibility.

Wind force 10

Very large waves with overhanging crests. The whole sea gets a white appearance.

Wind force 11

Exceptionally high waves, able to hide small boats from sight for long periods of time. The sea is covered in white patches of foam.

Wind force 12

Hard to see due to foam and spray. Entire sea is covered in a white layer.

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Joseph Agius

Hi am 65 years old and I just bought my first sailing boat Dromor 1992 Apollo 12 40Ft. I had my boat since 12 July 2019 I been out every week from zero wind to 10 knots. This Saturday 21St October 2019 first time going out with wind up to 10 konts to 13 knots I am not an expert but I feel confident going out after I read your article any advice please. Regards Joseph

Your article give me more confident to sail you explained every aspect of wimd, waves and wrote many ideas about sailing save, which makes me more comfortable.

Tracey Shadday

Your article on wind speed and sailing was interesting and helpful. Yesterday I took a Sunfish out in what I was told was 11 knot wind. Very soon after embarking I jibed and turtled the boat. This morning I looked at marine data and found the actual wind was 15-22 knots. I was not skilled enough for this moderate breeze. Your suggestion to look at the water and photos to go with it was helpful. Thank you!

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The Perfect Wind Speed for Sailing – How Much Wind Do You Really Need? ANSWERED

If you’re new to sailing, you might be wondering what the best sailing wind speed is. It seems like an easy question, but the question strikes at the heart of the things that go into sailing a boat and being a good skipper. 

Of course, there is no one perfect wind speed for sailing. Every skipper on the ocean will have a different answer. One will like the smooth and steady ride they get from their coastal cruiser when the wind blows at 12 knots. Another, sailing heavy offshore boats, won’t even bother putting the sails up with a minimum wind speed of 12 knots or less—but they don’t start having fun until it’s 18-20 knots. 

But there’s even more! Those same two skippers might be handed those conditions one day and still complain! Now, 12 knots of wind on the nose means hours of tacking or running the motor for the coastal cruiser. The offshore sailor isn’t making enough progress downwind in 18 knots because the seas have built up too high from a storm and the ride is rough. On this day, neither skipper is happy with their usual comfortable sailing setup!

Table of Contents

What is the ideal wind speed for sailing, wind speed in knots vs mph, the beaufort wind scale, true vs apparent wind on sailboats, good sailing wind speed for sailing upwind vs downwind, boat displacement and agility, sailing in various weather conditions and wind speeds, sail selection, the importance of reefing, wind speed and risk management, faqs — best wind speed for sailing.

To answer this question, we must make a few assumptions.

• You’re new to sailing and gaining experience 
• You’re on a moderate-sized cruising boat, not a dinghy or a racer
• You’re looking to make miles and travel, not enjoy a lazy day on the water
• You are more interested in the comfort of your crew than getting there as fast as possible

In other words, this article assumes that you’re the average cruising sailor, traveling for pleasure to see the world by boat. So, if you are a weekend warrior out for the annual small boat race on the river, you might have completely different answers!

If these assumptions apply to you, you’ll probably find that the best sailing days are when the wind blows between 10 and 15 knots. This is enough wind to move even the heaviest boats, although not always very fast. It’s also a safe speed that any cruising-sized boat can handle easily, with the sails still being easy to handle and the boat easy to steer.

As you gain experience you will expand your comfort zone, as long as you boat safely and continue having fun. Once the winds start getting above 25 knots, even many experienced sailors will stay in port. High winds mean more serious training and large waves. When you’re in it for the fun, you’ll likely opt for the most comfortable sailing days, not the most challenging.

How are Wind Speeds Measured?

Before discussing the best wind speed for sailing, we should agree on how to measure the wind speed and look at how sailors get these numbers and interpret them.

One important consideration is how you get your information. For example, many boaters use apps and websites to calculate wind speed from global weather models like the GFS or the ECMWF. The problem with these numbers is that they are forecasts made on many assumptions and estimations that may not be perfect. They are especially limited in places where land interactions can drastically change the local wind patterns.

Besides weather forecasts, boats can get their wind measurements from buoy observations or their own boat’s anemometers (wind vanes). But anemometers have limitations too, and they are often not calibrated very well. Their location makes a big difference, too, since most weather forecasts and official observations are made for 10 meters off the water. So a deck-level wind vane will read a different number than a masthead-mounted unit.

Finally, there’s also the difference between stead winds and gusts. There seem to be many sailors who look at the steady wind forecast and ignore the gusts and then complain about how much windier it was than the forecast stated! 

Remember when thinking about wind speeds for sailing to compare apples to apples. Nearly everything you measure on a boat is in knots—your speed over ground, hull speed, and the wind speeds you should put in a reef. So if your weather app is feeding you the information in miles per hour (MPH), do yourself a favor and eliminate the confusion. See if you can find an app that makes the conversion for you, or remember that 1 knot is equal to 1.15 statute miles per hour.

The Beaufort scale is an old system for measuring wind speed based on the conditions that a sailor can observe out on the water. After all, our focus on the precise wind speed as displayed on a digital indicator is a modern fixation. Sailors have been plying the seas for generations without that technology, although having access to the information has undoubtedly made traveling by sea much safer.

Still, the wind scale helps understand the realms of wind speed and the associated conditions in each. It is not just the wind that should concern a sailor. They must also consider the sea state–the height of wind-blown waves plus the ocean swell. 

The Beaufort scale is measured from 0 (dead calm) to 12 (survival storm conditions or hurricane). Distinct changes in the sea state mark each force. Knowing the Beaufort forces enables a sailor to estimate the wind force in knots without an instrument. 

There’s a big difference between the wind on the water and the wind on the boat. This concept is the definition of “apparent wind.” Apparent wind is that which is felt on the deck of the boat. It changes dramatically depending on the boat’s speed and direction. The opposite of apparent wind is “true wind,” which is the wind speed and direction on the water, without the effects of the boat.

It’s best explained through an example. Let’s imagine a hypothetical sailboat that can sail in any direction—even directly into the wind. Maybe it’s not sailing–it’s just motoring! 

The wind is blowing out of the north at 10 knots. Our sailboat makes 5 knots—no matter which direction it is going.

If the boat is pointed north and directly into the wind, the apparent wind felt on the boat’s deck is 15 knots—10 knots of wind PLUS 5 knots of motor/sailing power. This is the wind in its sails, the breeze on your face, and everything else. Since 15 knots is a better speed to sail a boat, an upwind sail probably feels pretty good and might be called a “good working breeze.” 

What if the boat turned around and went south? Then the apparent wind on deck would be only 5 knots—10 knots of wind MINUS 5 knots of sailing speed. It’s worth noting that most cruising boats do not sail well in winds less than 10 knots and probably will not be making way in winds of 5 or less.

And finally, what if the boat were on a beam reach, headed either due east or west? The apparent wind would be 10 knots since there is no component of the vessel’s speed to add or subtract. 

For all points in between, the apparent wind would be something between 15 (maximum) and 5 (minimum). The exact amount would depend on how close to the wind direction the boat is maneuvering. 

How Much Wind Do You Need to Sail?

The glimpse into the apparent wind in the example above probably provides clues as to how complicated the question of wind speed is on a boat. Now, let’s look at some of the other factors that play into this calculus.

The example above demonstrates that the best wind speeds for sailing depend significantly on the direction you’re going. There’s an adage—A sailor cannot change the wind, but they can adjust their sails. It’s just one more example of why traveling on a sailboat is challenging.

Generally, if you need to sail to a downwind destination, more true wind is favorable. This is because your apparent wind will be lower, so it takes more true wind to move the boat. Additionally, downwind sails are generally more comfortable anyway, since you are sailing with following seas and not pounding into it. 

In our example above, a cruising boat trying to make miles probably could not be headed south without running its motor. If they were headed due north, they’d either have to tack back and forth , motor into the wind, or perhaps motor sail. 

The opposite is true about sailing into the wind. If you’re on a beat, the best wind speed for your sail may be just enough to get the boat near its hull speed. Anything more may produce seas that slow the boat down.

Some of these effects have everything to do with the boat you’re standing on. Every sailboat in the world was designed for a specific set of circumstances. Some are designed very light with lots of sail area, while others are heavier to provide softer rides in rough seas and carry a lot of weight. Know your boat and know what it can and can’t do. Don’t expect a heavily laden, full keel ocean cruiser to sail downwind in 5 knots of apparent wind. 

The choices might be different on a race boat that sails well in light air. The boat might have a large spinnaker, be lightly built and lightly loaded, and be able to sail well downwind in 5 knots of apparent wind. Sailing upwind, it might have better tacking angles and make better VMG (velocity made good, the speed at which you head directly towards your destination). Of course, this boat can travel faster, but it likely can’t hold all your stuff and allow you to live comfortably.

You can draw the same similarities in the catamaran and multihull sailing world. Just because it’s a catamaran does not mean that it will always sail fast. Many cruising catamarans are heavy, especially those that have been kitted out for living aboard. It might win a race with the monohull above sailing downwind in 5 knots of wind. Where the monohull is ghosting along at 2 knots, the cruising catamaran might be doing 2.5 or 3 knots. 

A look at the Beaufort wind scale provides another glimpse into factors that affect sailors. In anything more than a fresh breeze, the sea state begins playing a prominent part of the wind speed equation. The sea is constantly changing, and driving a sailboat up and down mountainous seas is like driving a car over hilly roads. The boat will slow down going uphill and surf down the wave quickly as it slides downhill. 

But a lot of that depends on the timing of the seas. During big storms, seas build up for hundreds of miles in the open ocean and have a big period between them. So big ocean swells might not have much effect on a boat’s progress.

But many times in near-shore waters and places with currents, wind-driven waves pile up. When the wave period (measured in seconds) is equal or less to the wave height, they are called square waves. Square waves produce a very uncomfortable chop that can slow the progress of even the stoutest sailboat.

Regardless of the wave’s shape, the quality of the ride is important inside the vessel. A rough ride can be invigorating and fun if out sailing for an afternoon. But, if sailing overnight, rough seas taken too fast can become uncomfortable. On extended passage, you must take crew fatigue into account. 

The takeaway is this—when figuring out the best wind speed for sailing, the choice can’t be made while ignoring the sea state. The perfect wind speed for sailing on a calm, protected bay might be way too much for open water, or you might need to begin reefing sooner. 

Finally, all boats are limited by the sails they have onboard. Most cruising sailors make do with a standard mainsail and a furling jib or genoa. Without adding a foresail designed explicitly for light airs, like an asymmetrical spinnaker, gennaker, or code zero, the boat will likely need 15-20 knots of true wind to sail at hull speed downwind. 

On the other end of the spectrum, some boats might be risky to take out in conditions beyond a strong breeze without adding robust storm sails. Furling sails can and do come unfurled unexpectedly, and most furling systems are not built to withstand gale or storm-force conditions without careful use and constant inspections for chafe. 

All of this highlights another vital topic in sailing— how to reef a sail . The ability to shorten sails to operate safely in higher winds is an integral part of negotiating the variety of conditions you will encounter on the water. 

If you’re a day sailor, it’s possible you could pick your conditions and never have to reef. But reefing is essentially good boat handling—it is the ability to drive the car without having the “pedal to the metal” all the time. Controlling the power your sails make will make the boat sail better. It will reduce weather helm, excessive heeling, and in some cases, can increase your speed by increasing efficiency.

In summary, what is the ideal wind speed for sailing? The answer is—it depends! It depends on your boat, your skill and experience, on the conditions on the water, on the direction you’re going, and probably many other things not listed here. 

The fundamental takeaway should be this—as you grow as a sailor, you must learn to handle your boat in various realistic conditions. But at some point, the risk of danger outweighs the benefits. At 10 knots, the risks are low. At 20 knots, most cruising boats can handle almost anything, but reefing is a good idea. At 30 knots, if you aren’t reefed and in control, things can go bad quickly. Finally, at 40 knots of wind or more, you should be heavily reefed for heavy weather. 

One parting thought–remember that boating isn’t always about sailing. Most of us have to return to a crowded marina and a tight slip after a sporty day of sailing, and most sailboats are not great when being handled in close quarters. So until you’ve had some safe high wind close-quarters maneuvering in your boat, make sure conditions will allow you to dock safely.

What is the best wind speed for sailing?

The best wind for sailing is the one that propels the boat without using the motor in the direction you want to go, which provides a comfortable and safe ride. 

Unfortunately, no sailor can control the speed of the wind for sailing. So instead, sailors learn to control what they can. They can put out or take in sail, they can set a different course, they can start their motors, or they can stay in port and go sailing another day. 

How windy is too windy for sailing?

It depends on your boat and your experience level. With its sails reefed, you can safely sail most cruising sailboats in winds up to 30 knots. Beyond the 30 knot line, most pleasure sailors will choose to stay in port to avoid the rough ride and extra work it will take to handle the boat. However, the number is arbitrary since every boat and every skipper is different.

Is 10 mph wind good for sailing?

Ten miles per hour (8.6 knots) of wind is a good wind speed to learn to sail. It is enough wind to fill the sails and provide power for the boat to move, but the control lines will be lightly loaded. The boat will be moving at a leisurely and pleasant pace in most cases. 

It does depend on the boat’s size and direction, however. In light winds like 10 mph, downwind sailing in a big boat will be very slow. So 10 mph is fun for a day on the water and suitable for sailing lessons and dinghy sailing, but not quite enough for quick travel by sailboat if you’re trying to get somewhere.

Is 15 mph wind strong for boating?

In the open ocean, 15 mph (13 knots) of wind is described as a moderate breeze. You can expect small waves of one to four feet to form. This is likely a nice day on the water for sailboats and larger powerboats. Small boats, however, may find the conditions very rough. Of course, local conditions like those found in an inlet could be unsafe for even a bigger boat in a 15 mph wind, so always seek local knowledge when boating in unfamiliar waters. Alternatively, 15 mph wind on a protected body of water like a lake or bay may produce only a light chop and be an ideal wind speed.

Matt has been boating around Florida for over 25 years in everything from small powerboats to large cruising catamarans. He currently lives aboard a 38-foot Cabo Rico sailboat with his wife Lucy and adventure dog Chelsea. Together, they cruise between winters in The Bahamas and summers in the Chesapeake Bay.

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What is the optimal wind speed for a sailboat?

As a sailing enthusiast, you may often wonder what the optimal wind speed for your sailboat is. The answer to this question is not as simple, as there are several factors that play into the ideal wind conditions for sailing. However, a basic understanding of the relationship between wind speed and sailing performance can help you determine your ideal sailing conditions.

To begin with, wind speed is a crucial element that impacts the performance of your sailboat. In general, most sailboats are designed to perform best in moderate to strong winds. Strong winds propel the boat faster, while light winds can cause slower speed and require more skill to succeed. It is important to note that different types of sailboats, such as racing boats and cruisers, have different optimal wind ranges, and some are more versatile in different wind ranges.

Sailboat performance is also influenced by the sail area and the shape of the sails. The angle and shape of the sails should be appropriately adjusted to maximize the wind’s energy to propel the boat. The right angle and the sail shape translate to increased efficiency, boat speed, and maneuverability.

In general, sailboats perform best with stable wind speeds. Winds between 8 and 20 knots (9-23 miles/hour) are considered optimal for most sailboats because they provide enough strength to push the sailboat through the water steadily. However, even within this range, wind direction can affect a sailboat in a significant way, especially in the case of sailing upwind.

For instance, if the wind direction is upwind (in opposition to the sailboat’s direction), the optimal range might be around 12-20 knots. Too much wind can result in the boat heeling excessively, making it more challenging to steer and navigate.

Similarly, if the wind is downwind, the optimal range might be between 8 and 15 knots. A light wind can cause the sails to flap and hinder your sailing progress. Meanwhile, a gusty wind can make sailing more challenging.

In summary, understanding the optimal wind range for your sailboat is essential to maximize your sailing experience. While wind conditions are a significant factor in sailboat performance, it is important to remember that different sailboats respond to different weather patterns. Therefore, you should always consult the sailboat manufacturer’s recommendations or consult with experienced sailors to ensure that you’re making the most out of your sailing experience.

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Resistive forces

Predicting speed, the physics of sailing.

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Bryon D. Anderson; The physics of sailing. Physics Today 1 February 2008; 61 (2): 38–43. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2883908

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In addition to the recreational pleasure sailing affords, it involves some interesting physics. Sailing starts with the force of the wind on the sails. Analyzing that interaction yields some results not commonly known to non-sailors. It turns out, for example, that downwind is not the fastest direction for sailing. And there are aerodynamic issues. Sails and keels work by providing “lift” from the fluid passing around them. So optimizing keel and wing shapes involves wing theory.

The resistance experienced by a moving sailboat includes the effects of waves, eddies, and turbulence in the water, and of the vortices produced in air by the sails. To reduce resistance effectively by optimizing hulls, keels, and sails, one has to understand its various components.

Moving air has kinetic energy that can, through its interaction with the sails, be used to propel a sailboat. Like airplane wings, sails exploit Bernoulli’s principle. An airplane wing is designed to cause the air moving over its top to move faster than the air moving along its undersurface. That results in lower pressure above the wing than below it. The pressure difference generates the lift provided by the wing.

There is much discussion of whether the pressure difference arises entirely from the Bernoulli effect or partly from the wing’s impact and redirection of the air. Classic wing theory attributes all the lift to the Bernoulli effect and ascribes the difference in wind speeds above and below the wing to the wing’s asymmetric cross-sectional shape, which caused the path on top to be longer. But it’s well known that an up–down symmetrical wing can provide lift simply by moving through the air with an upward tilt, called the angle of attack. Then, despite the wing’s symmetry, the wind still experiences a longer path and thus greater speed over the top of the wing than under its bottom. A NASA website has an excellent discussion of the various contributions to lift by an airplane wing. 1 It disputes the conventional simple version of wing theory and emphasizes that lift is produced by the turning of the fluid flow.

The case is similar for sailboats. A sail is almost always curved and presented to the wind at an angle of attack. The situation is shown schematically in figure 1(a) . The wind moving around the “upper,” or downwind, side of the sail is forced to take the longer path. So the presence of the surrounding moving air makes it move faster than the air passing along the “lower,” or upwind, side of the sail. Measurements confirm that relative to the air pressure far from the sail, the pressure is higher on the upwind side and lower on the downwind side.

Figure 1. Forces on a moving sailboat. (a) Sail and keel produce horizontal “lift” forces due to pressure differences from different wind and water speeds, respectively, on opposite surfaces. (b) The vector sum of lift forces from sail and keel forces determines the boat’s direction of motion (assuming there’s no rudder). When boat speed and course are constant, the net lift force is precisely balanced by the velocity-dependent drag force on the boat as it plows through water and air.

For downwind sailing, with the sail oriented perpendicular to the wind direction, the pressure increase on the upwind side is greater than the pressure decrease on the downwind side. As one turns the boat more and more into the direction from which the wind is coming, those differences reverse, so that with the wind perpendicular to the motion of the boat, the pressure decrease on the downwind side is greater than the pressure increase on the upwind side. For a boat sailing almost directly into the wind, the pressure decrease on the downwind side is much greater than the increase on the upwind side.

Experimenting with what can be done, a beginner finds some surprising results. Sailors know well that the fastest point of sail (the boat’s direction of motion with respect to the wind direction) is not directly downwind. Sailboats move fastest when the boat is moving with the wind coming “abeam” (from the side). That’s easily understood: When a sailboat is moving directly downwind, it can never move faster than the wind because, at the wind speed, the sails would feel no wind. In fact, a boat going downwind can never attain the wind speed because there’s always some resistance to its motion through the water.

But when the boat is moving perpendicular to the wind, the boat’s speed doesn’t decrease the force of the wind on the sails. One sets the sails at about 45° to the direction of motion—and to the wind. The boat’s equilibrium speed is determined by the roughly constant force of the wind in the sails and the resistance against the boat’s motion through the water. If the resistance can be made small, the velocity can be large. That’s seen most dramatically for sail iceboats, which skate on the ice with very little resistance. They can glide along at speeds in excess of 150 km/h with the wind abeam at speeds of only 50 km/h! Of course sailboats plowing through the water experience much more resistance. Nonetheless, some specially constructed sailboats have attained speeds of more than twice the wind speed.

It was recognized centuries ago that a sailboat needs something to help it move in the direction in which it’s pointed rather than just drifting downwind. The answer was the keel. Until the development of modern wing theory, it was thought that one needed a long, deep keel to prevent side-slipping. But now it’s understood that a keel, like a sail, works by providing sideways lift as the water flows around it, as shown in figure 1(a) . A keel must be symmetrical for the sailboat to move to either side of the wind.

A keel works only if the motion of the boat is not exactly in the direction in which it’s pointed. The boat must be moving somewhat sideways. In that “crabbing” motion, the keel moves through the water with an angle of attack. Just as for the sails in the wind, that causes the water on the “high” (more downstream) side of the keel to move faster and create a lower pressure. Again, the net lift force on the keel is due to the combination of that decreased pressure on the high side and increased pressure on the other (low) side.

In figure 1(b) , the keel lift thus generated points almost in the opposite direction from the lift provided by the sails. The two vectors can be resolved into components along and perpendicular to the boat’s direction of motion. For a sailboat moving in equilibrium—that is, at constant speed in a fixed direction—the transverse lift components from sail and keel cancel each other. The component of the driving force from the sails in the direction of motion is the force that is actually moving the boat forward. For equilibrium motion, that force is balanced by the opposing component of the keel lift plus the total resistive force.

Wing theory, developed over the past 100 years for flight, indicates that the most efficient wing is long and narrow. Vortices produced at the wing tip cost energy. A long, narrow wing maximizes the ratio of lift to vortex dissipation, thus providing the best performance for a given wing surface area. That also applies to sailboat sails and keels.

It is now recognized that the most efficient keels are narrow from front to back and deep. Such a keel can have much less surface area than the old long keels. Less area means less resistance. Most modern racing sailboats, such as those used in the America’s Cup races, have deep, narrow keels that are very efficient at providing the lift necessary to prevent side-slipping. Of course, such keels are a problem for recreational sailors in shallow waters.

A sailboat experiences several kinds of resistance. The first is simply the resistance of the hull moving through water. As the boat moves, it shears the water. Water molecules adhere to the hull’s surface. So there must be a shear—that is, a velocity gradient—between the adhering molecular layer at rest with respect to the hull and the bulk of water farther away. The shear means that van der Waals couplings between water molecules are being broken. That costs energy and creates the resistive force, which becomes stronger as the boat’s speed increases. The energy dissipation also increases with the total area of wetted surface.

Although the effect is called frictional resistance, it’s important to realize that the resistive force in water is basically different from the frictional force between solid surfaces rubbed together. To reduce ordinary friction, one can polish or lubricate the sliding surfaces. That makes surface bumps smaller, and it substitutes the shearing of fluid lubricant molecules for shearing of the more tightly bound molecules on the solid surfaces.

For a boat moving through water, however, polishing the hull doesn’t eliminate the shearing of the molecules of water, which is already a fluid. The resistive force cannot be reduced significantly except by reducing the wetted surface. It does help to have a smooth surface, but that’s primarily to reduce turbulence.

The generation of turbulence is a general phenomenon in the flow of fluids. At sufficiently low speeds, fluid flow is laminar. At higher speeds, turbulence begins. Its onset has to do with the shearing of the molecules in the fluid. When the shearing reaches a critical rate, the fluid can no longer respond with a continuous dynamic equilibrium in the flow, and the result is turbulence. Its onset is quantified in terms of the Reynolds number

where ν is the velocity of the flowing fluid, μ is its viscosity, ρ is its density, and L is the relevant length scale of the system. Rearranging factors in equation (1) , one can think of R as the ratio of inertial forces ( ρν ) to viscous forces ( μ /L). In the late 19th century, English engineer Osborne Reynolds found that, with surprising universality, turbulence begins when that dimensionless parameter exceeds about a million.

For a boat of length L moving through water at velocity ν to see when turbulence begins in the flow along the hull, R is about 10 6   Lν (in SI units). A typical speed for a sailboat is 5 knots (2.4 m/s). At that speed, then, one should expect turbulence for any boat longer than half a meter. (Used worldwide as a measure of boat speed, a knot is one nautical mile per hour. A nautical mile is one arcminute of latitude, or 1.85 km.)

Because turbulence dissipates energy, it increases the resistance to motion through the water. With turbulence, a sailboat’s resistance is typically four or five times greater than it is when the flow along the hull is laminar. A rough surface will cause turbulence to be greater and begin sooner. That’s the main reason to have a smooth hull surface.

Turbulence also occurs in the air flowing along the surface of the sail. Water is a thousand times denser than air and 50 times more viscous. So for the air–sail system one gets

For a typical wind speed of 5 m/s, then, one gets turbulence if the sail is wider than about 3 meters. When turbulence forms in the air flow along the sail, the desired pressure difference between the two sides of the sail—its lift—is diminished.

Another important resistive force comes from vortex generation at the bottom of the keel and at the top of the sails. When the air or water moves around the longer-path side of the sail or keel, its speed increases and therefore its pressure falls. As the air or water moves along the sail or keel, it will respond to the resulting pressure difference by trying to migrate from the high-pressure side to the low-pressure side. Figure 2 sketches that effect for a keel. What actually happens, as shown in the figure’s side view, is that the flow angles a bit up on one side and down on the other. When those flows meet at the back of the sail or keel, the difference in their arrival angles has a twisting effect on the fluid flow that can cause a vortex to come off the top of the sail or the bottom of the keel.

Figure 2. Vortex formation by the keel. Unless the boat is sailing straight ahead, there’s a pressure difference between the two sides of the keel. As a result, the water flow angles down on the high-pressure (lower water-speed) side and up on the low-pressure side, creating a twist in the flow that generates vortices behind the bottom rear of the keel.

The effect is well known for airplane wings. Called induced drag, vortex formation costs energy. Figure 3 shows vortices generated at the tops of sails by racing sailboats moving through a fog. A long keel will generate very large vortices. By making the keel short and deep, one can increase the ratio of lift to energy dissipated by vortices. The same is accomplished—especially for sailboats racing upwind—by having tall, narrow sails. It’s also why gliders have long, narrow wings.

Figure 3. Sailtops form vortices visible in fog. The boats were participating in the 2001–02 Volvo Ocean Race off Cape Town, South Africa.

Because it’s often impractical to have a short, deep keel or a narrow, long wing, one can install a vane at the tip to reduce the flow from the high-pressure to the low-pressure side. On planes they’re called winglets, and on keels they’re simply called wings. A modern recreational or cruising sailboat will have a keel that’s a compromise between the old-fashioned long keels and the modern deep, narrow keels—with a wing at the bottom rear end to reduce induced drag. Such keel wings were first used by the victorious sailboat Australia II in the 1983 America’s Cup race. Modern wing theory also suggests that to minimize induced drag, keels and sails should have elliptic or tapered trailing edges. 2 Such shaped edges are now common.

A sailboat also has a resistance component due simply to its deflection of water sideways as it advances. That’s called form resistance, and it obviously depends on hull geometry. It’s easy to see that narrow hulls provide less resistance than do wider hulls. Any boat will always be a compromise between providing low form resistance and providing passenger and cargo space. Seeking to minimize form resistance for a given hull volume, shipbuilders have tried many basic hull shapes over the centuries. Even Isaac Newton weighed in on the question. He concluded that the best hull shape is an ellipsoid of revolution with a truncated cone at the bow.

Extensive computer modeling and tank testing have resulted in a modern hull design that widens slowly back from the bow and then remains fairly wide near the stern. Even with a wide stern, designers try to provide enough taper toward the back to allow smooth flow there. That taper is often accomplished by having the stern rise smoothly from the water rather than by narrowing the beam. If the flow from the stern is not smooth, large eddies will form and contribute to resistance.

As a boat moves through water, it creates a bow wave that moves with the speed of the boat. Water waves are dispersive; long waves propagate faster than short ones. Therefore the length of the full wave generated by the bow is determined by the boat’s speed. As a boat starts to move slowly through the water, one sees at first a number of wave crests and troughs moving down the side of the hull. As the boat speeds up, the wavelength gets longer and one sees fewer waves down the side. Eventually at some speed, the wave will be long enough so that there’s just one wave down the side of the boat, with its crest at the bow, a trough in the middle, and another crest at the stern (see figure 4 ). That’s called the hull speed.

Figure 4. Moving at hull speed, a sailboat generates a bow wave whose wavelength just equals the length of the boat’s water line. The wave crests at bow and stern, with a single well-formed trough in between.

If the boat speed increases further, the wavelength increases so that the second crest moves back behind the boat and the stern begins to descend into the trough. At that point, the boat is literally sailing uphill and the resistance increases dramatically. That’s called wave resistance. Of course, if one has a powerboat with a large engine and a flat-bottomed hull, one can “gun” the engine and cause the boat to jump up on the bow wave and start to plane on the water’s surface. Most sailboats don’t have either the power or the hull geometry to plane. So they’re ultimately limited by wave resistance.

The wave-resistance limit also applies to all other so-called displacement boats: freighters, tankers, tugs, and most naval vessels bigger than PT boats—that is, any boat that can’t rise to plane on the surface. The functional dependence of water-wave speed ν on wavelength λ is well known. From the limiting case for deep-water waves for the solution of the two-dimensional Laplace wave equation, 3 or from a simple derivation due originally to Lord Rayleigh, 4 one gets ν = g λ / 2 π ⁠ , where g is the acceleration of gravity. In the form commonly used by sailors in the US,

where the λ is in feet and ν is in knots.

If one equates the wavelength to the waterline length of a boat, equation (3) gives the boat’s hull speed. For a sailboat with a waterline length of 20 feet (6 m), the hull speed is 6 knots. For a large cruising sailboat with a waterline of 40 feet (12 m), it’s about 8 knots. And for a 300-foot-long naval vessel, it’s 23 knots. In practice, it’s very difficult to make a displacement boat go faster than about 1.5 times its hull speed.

Combining all the components of resistance for a sailboat moving at close to its hull speed, one finds that the frictional resistance contributes about a third of the total, and the wave resistance another third. Form resistance accounts for about 10%, as does the induced drag from vortex generation at the bottom of the keel. The assorted remaining contributions, including eddy formation behind the boat and aerial vortex generation by the sails, provide the remaining 10 to 15%. Of course the fractional contributions vary with boat speed, wave conditions, and the direction of motion relative to the wind.

One can exploit the physics of sailing to calculate boat speeds for a given sailboat for different wind speeds and points of sail. Such calculations are usually performed iteratively by computer programs that start from two basic vector equations to be solved simultaneously:

Here F drive is the total driving force in the direction of motion provided by the wind in the sails, and F resistance is the sum of all the resistive forces. The torques M heel and M righting are the heeling and righting moments caused by the wind in the sails and the weight of the hull and keel.

The force of the wind on the sail is calculated as a lifting force perpendicular to the apparent wind direction and a drag force in the direction of the apparent wind. (The apparent wind is the wind as perceived by an observer aboard the moving vessel.) These lift and drag forces are then resolved into components along and perpendicular to the direction of motion. The net force in the direction of motion is then F drive ⁠ , and the net force perpendicular to the boat’s motion is what produces the heeling moment. The two equations in ( (4) ) must be solved simultaneously because the angle of heel affects the total driving force.

Following Bernoulli’s principle, one takes the force of the wind in the sails to be proportional to the total sail area times the square of the apparent wind speed. The actual forces are then obtained with empirical lift and drag coefficients, given as functions of sail geometry and angle of attack. Frictional resistance is proportional to the hull’s wetted surface area and increases as the square of the boat’s speed. All the various contributions to total resistance involve empirical coefficients. Wave and form resistance are expressed as functions of the hull’s “prismatic coefficient,” which is an inverse measure of the tapered slimness of its ends.

There are simple and complex speed-prediction computer programs. Some that have been refined over decades for racing applications are kept private and closely guarded. Figure 5 shows the results of calculations I performed for a 30-foot (10-m) cruising sailboat using a publicly available program. 5 The figure shows the calculated boat speed as a function of wind speed and point of sail. The predicted boat speeds are greatest when one is sailing about 90° away from the wind direction. Sailors call that beam reaching. It yields a boat speed of about half the wind speed.

Figure 5. Speeds predicted by a computer model 5 for a 10-meter-long cruising sailboat, plotted for three different wind speeds from 6 to 20 knots as a function of the angle of the boat’s motion relative to the wind direction. (10 knots = 18.5 km/h.) An angle of 180° means the boat is “running” with the wind directly at its back. The fastest speeds are predicted when the boat is “beam reaching,” that is, moving at about 90° to the wind. The boat even makes some progress when it’s “close hauling” almost directly into the wind.

Such calculations are confirmed experimentally, with a degree of accuracy that depends on the sophistication of the model and on how much the program has been tuned for a specific kind of sailboat. Broadly speaking, a sailboat is faster if it is longer and narrower, with bigger sails and a smaller wetted surface. Such general rules can, of course, yield a boat that’s longer than one wants, or tips over too easily, or has too little room inside.

So every design feature is a compromise between competing needs. For sailing downwind, one wants fairly square sails, which are best at catching the wind. But for sailing upwind, taller, narrower sails are best, because they maximize the ratio of lift to energy lost by generating vortices. The most efficient keel is deep and narrow, to maximize lift with minimal surface area. But a deep keel is problematic in shallow waters. Shorter keels with wings or bulbs at the bottom usually represent the best compromise for overall sailing.

What’s the highest speed a sailboat can reach? The trick is to reduce resistance. An iceboat can outrun the wind because it has so little resistance. For a sailboat, the resistance comes primarily from having to plow through the water. The best way to reduce that resistance is to move less and less of the boat through the water. One answer is hydrofoils. They are vanes placed below the hull that raise it out of the water as the boat speeds up.

Sailboats with hydrofoils have reached speeds of more than 40 knots when the wind speed was barely half that. One such craft is shown in figure 6 . These vessels are not usually practical for cruising and other normal recreational activities. They’re sometimes dismissed as low-flying aircraft. A more practical alternative is the catamaran—a double-hulled sailboat. Catamarans are being developed to provide relatively stable, fast sailing. Although they are more expensive than traditional single-hull sailboats for a given amount of living space, catamarans are becoming increasingly popular.

Figure 6. A hydrofoil sailboat with solid, winglike sails, moving at about twice the wind speed with the wind abeam—that is, blowing from the side.

Bryon Anderson is an experimental nuclear physicist and chairman of the physics department at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio. He is also an avocational sailor who lectures and writes about the intersection between physics and sailing.

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How to Read Wind Indicators for Sailing: The Complete Guide

Sailing is a thrilling and challenging sport that requires a great deal of skill and knowledge. One of the most important skills for any sailor to learn is how to read wind indicators. Wind indicators, also known as wind vanes or telltales, provide crucial information about wind direction and speed, which is essential for making tactical decisions while sailing.

Table of Contents

Understanding Wind Direction

When it comes to sailing, understanding wind direction is crucial. The direction of the wind can affect the speed and course of a sailboat. Here are some key points to keep in mind when reading wind direction:

• Wind direction is measured in degrees clockwise from true north. For example, if the wind is coming from the north, it is 0 degrees. If it is coming from the east, it is 90 degrees.
• Wind direction can be affected by local topography, such as hills or buildings. This is known as wind shear.
• Wind direction can also be affected by the sailboat’s position relative to the wind. For example, if the sailboat is sailing directly into the wind, the wind will appear to be coming from the front of the boat. This is known as the “no-go zone.”
• One way to determine wind direction is to look at the direction of the waves. Wind will cause waves to form in a certain direction, which can indicate the direction of the wind.
• Another way to determine wind direction is to use a wind indicator, such as a wind vane or wind sock. These indicators will show the direction of the wind relative to the sailboat.

Types of Wind Indicators

Wind indicators are instruments that help sailors determine the direction and strength of the wind. There are various types of wind indicators available, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.

The Windex is a popular wind indicator that many sailors mount on the masthead of their boats. It is a simple device that consists of a vane or an arrow that points in the direction of the wind. The Windex is easy to install, lightweight, and affordable. It is also easy to read, even from a distance. However, the Windex is not very accurate in light winds, and it can be affected by the boat’s motion.

Telltales are small strips of fabric or yarn that are attached to the sail. They help sailors determine the direction and strength of the wind by showing the flow of air over the sail. When the sail is properly trimmed, the telltales should be streaming back smoothly. If they are fluttering or standing still, it means that the sail needs to be adjusted. Telltales are inexpensive, easy to install, and provide real-time feedback on sail trim. However, they can be difficult to see in low light conditions, and they can be affected by the boat’s motion.

Masthead Anemometer

A masthead anemometer is a more advanced wind indicator that measures the speed and direction of the wind at the top of the mast. It consists of a vane that points into the wind and a set of cups that spin in the wind. The speed and direction of the cups are measured by sensors, and the data is transmitted to a display unit in the cockpit. Masthead anemometers are very accurate, even in light winds, and they provide real-time feedback on wind speed and direction. However, they are expensive, difficult to install, and require regular maintenance.

Handheld Anemometer

A handheld anemometer is a portable wind indicator that measures the speed and direction of the wind at the location of the sailor. It consists of a small vane and a set of cups that spin in the wind. The speed and direction of the cups are measured by sensors, and the data is displayed on a small screen. Handheld anemometers are easy to use, affordable, and provide accurate readings. However, they require the sailor to hold the device steady, which can be difficult in rough seas, and they can be affected by the sailor’s body heat.

How to Read a Masthead Wind Indicator

A masthead wind indicator, also known as a Windex, is a device that is mounted on the masthead of a sailboat to show the direction of the wind. It is a simple and effective tool that helps sailors to adjust their sails and steer their boat in the right direction. Here are some tips on how to read a masthead wind indicator:

Observing the Vane

The vane of a masthead wind indicator is the part that moves with the wind. It is usually made of lightweight materials like plastic or aluminum, and it is designed to be sensitive to even the slightest breeze. When observing the vane, it is important to note the following:

• The direction of the vane: The vane will point in the direction that the wind is coming from. This is useful information for sailors who need to adjust their sails to take advantage of the wind.
• The angle of the vane: The angle of the vane relative to the boat’s centerline will tell you how much the boat is being pushed sideways by the wind. If the vane is pointing directly forward, the boat is sailing straight into the wind. If the vane is pointing to the side, the boat is being pushed sideways by the wind.

Interpreting the Tails

The tails of a masthead wind indicator are small pieces of fabric or plastic that are attached to the vane. They are used to show the relative strength of the wind. When interpreting the tails, it is important to note the following:

• The number of tails: Most masthead wind indicators have two or three tails. Two tails indicate light winds, while three tails indicate stronger winds.
• The position of the tails: The position of the tails relative to the vane will tell you the angle of the wind. If the tails are pointing straight back, the wind is coming from directly behind the boat. If the tails are pointing to the side, the wind is coming from the side of the boat.

By observing the vane and interpreting the tails, sailors can get a clear picture of the wind conditions and adjust their sails accordingly. With practice, reading a masthead wind indicator will become second nature, and sailors will be able to make quick adjustments to their sails without even thinking about it.

How to Read a Handheld Anemometer

When sailing, it is crucial to have an accurate reading of the wind speed and direction. Handheld anemometers are a great tool for this purpose. Here are the steps to follow to read a handheld anemometer:

Reading the Wind Speed

The wind speed is typically displayed in knots, miles per hour (mph), or meters per second (m/s). To read the wind speed on a handheld anemometer, follow these steps:

• Turn on the anemometer and wait for it to calibrate.
• Hold the anemometer up in the air, away from your body, at arm’s length.
• Point the anemometer directly into the wind.
• Read the wind speed displayed on the screen.

Determining the Wind Direction

The wind direction is typically displayed in degrees or cardinal directions (e.g., N, NE, E, etc.). To determine the wind direction on a handheld anemometer, follow these steps:

• Look at the display and note the wind direction.

Some handheld anemometers also have a wind vane or arrow that points in the direction of the wind. This can be helpful for quickly determining the wind direction without having to read the display.

How to Read a Windex Wind Indicator

Interpreting the reference arms.

The Windex wind indicator consists of a vane that rotates around a vertical axis and two reference arms that extend horizontally from the vane. The reference arms are designed to provide a visual reference point for the direction of the wind relative to the heading of the boat.

To interpret the reference arms, imagine them as the arms of a clock. The arm that is pointing to the left of the boat is the 9 o’clock arm, and the arm that is pointing to the right of the boat is the 3 o’clock arm. If the wind is coming from the direction of the 9 o’clock arm, it means that the wind is coming from the port side of the boat. If the wind is coming from the direction of the 3 o’clock arm, it means that the wind is coming from the starboard side of the boat.

Reading the Wind Direction

To read the wind direction using the Windex wind indicator, you need to combine the information provided by the reference arms with your knowledge of the boat’s heading.

If the boat is heading directly into the wind, the vane of the Windex wind indicator will be pointing straight up, and the reference arms will be horizontal. In this position, the 9 o’clock arm will be pointing to the port side of the boat, and the 3 o’clock arm will be pointing to the starboard side of the boat.

If the boat is on a port tack, the wind will be coming from the starboard side of the boat. In this case, the vane of the Windex wind indicator will be pointing to the port side of the boat, and the 9 o’clock arm will be pointing down towards the water. The 3 o’clock arm will be pointing up towards the sky.

If the boat is on a starboard tack, the wind will be coming from the port side of the boat. In this case, the vane of the Windex wind indicator will be pointing to the starboard side of the boat, and the 3 o’clock arm will be pointing down towards the water. The 9 o’clock arm will be pointing up towards the sky.

By combining the information provided by the reference arms and your knowledge of the boat’s heading, you can accurately read the wind direction using the Windex wind indicator.

Using Wind Indicators for Sailing Strategies

Understanding how to read wind indicators is crucial for any sailor who wants to improve their performance on the water. In this section, we will explore how to use wind indicators to optimize sail trim and choose the best course.

Optimizing Sail Trim

Sail trim is the art of adjusting the sails to achieve the most efficient and effective use of the wind. Wind indicators provide valuable information about the direction and strength of the wind, which can help sailors to optimize their sail trim. Here are some tips for using wind indicators to optimize sail trim:

• Keep a close eye on your wind indicator to detect changes in wind direction or strength.
• Adjust your sails accordingly to maintain the optimal sail shape and angle to the wind.
• Use the telltales on your sails to help you determine whether your sail trim is correct.
• Experiment with different sail trim settings to find the one that works best for the current wind conditions.

Choosing the Best Course

Choosing the best course is essential for reaching your destination as quickly and efficiently as possible. Wind indicators can help you to choose the best course by providing information about wind direction and strength. Here are some tips for using wind indicators to choose the best course:

• Look for areas of the water where the wind is stronger or more consistent.
• Use your wind indicator to determine the optimal angle to the wind for your boat.
• Adjust your course accordingly to take advantage of the wind direction and strength.
• Keep an eye on your wind indicator to detect any changes in wind direction or strength that may require you to adjust your course.

Maintaining Your Wind Indicators

Maintaining your wind indicators is crucial to ensure accurate readings and reliable performance. Here are some tips to keep your wind indicators in top shape:

1. Regular cleaning

Wind indicators can accumulate dirt, dust, and grime over time, which can affect their accuracy. Regular cleaning with a soft cloth and mild detergent can help remove any buildup and keep the indicators functioning properly.

2. Lubrication

Wind indicators often have moving parts that require lubrication to operate smoothly. Applying a small amount of silicone or Teflon lubricant to the moving parts can help reduce friction and prolong the life of the indicators.

3. Check for damage

Regularly inspect your wind indicators for any signs of damage, such as cracks, chips, or bent parts. Any damage can affect the accuracy of the readings and compromise the safety of your sailboat. If you notice any damage, replace the indicators immediately.

4. Calibration

Wind indicators can drift out of calibration over time, especially if they are exposed to extreme weather conditions. Regularly calibrating your indicators can help ensure accurate readings and prevent any mishaps on the water.

Proper storage is essential to keep your wind indicators in good condition. When not in use, store them in a dry, cool place away from direct sunlight and extreme temperatures. This will help prevent any damage or deterioration.

In conclusion, reading wind indicators is a crucial skill for any sailor, and with the right tools and techniques, it can be mastered. The key is to understand the different types of wind indicators available and how to interpret the data they provide.

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What Is The Best Sailing Wind Speed? (Explained For Beginners)

When you’re out on the water sailing, there are days of no wind, heavy wind, and several degrees in between.

So which wind speed is the best for sailing?

Here’s the Best Wind Speed for Sailing:

Catamarans like more wind to perform their best, as do foiling boats. Racers prefer more wind in general than cruisers. Novice sailors are more comfortable in lighter winds. Most sailors agree that around 10 knots of wind are the best wind speed for sailing, as an average.

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What is the Easiest Wind Speed for Sailing?

Most sailors have the easiest wind speed for sailing between 8 to 12 knots (nautical miles per hour).

This is a steady breeze, and the first, smallest whitecaps start to form at around 12 knots.

This wind speed will move most sailboats at a comfortable speed, and it is not enough wind to threaten a capsize, barring a significant mistake on the helmsman or crew.

Monohulls will prefer the lower end of this wind range; catamarans and more experienced sailors will prefer the higher end.

The comfort zone of every sailor will vary, but most will find this the easiest wind range to sail in.

If you do a google search for “easiest wind speed for sailing,” a standard answer of 5-12 knots comes up. This broad stock answer spans the range for most sailors and their various boats and runs from the Light Breeze category on the Beaufort Scale of Winds to the beginnings of Moderate Breeze.

Most sailors, though, will prefer 8 knots of breeze to 5 for ease of sailing, as 5 is still light and will not move most boats steadily.

At 12 knots, you are at the beginning of Moderate Breeze on the scale, so it is still an easy wind speed to handle.

What is the Best Wind Speed for Learning to Sail?

You definitely do not want to get in over your head when learning to sail, so it is best to start your sailing career in lighter winds.

6 to 10 knots is a good range for novices. This is enough wind for the boat to sail as it should, but not enough to overpower you at any point.

There are few if any waves to deal with at 6 knots, and they are small in this wind range.

In 5 knots or less, the sails will not draw well, and you will not learn to use them as well as higher wind. Over 10 knots, you might find yourself getting overpowered and distracted.

You still might find yourself capsizing in a dinghy in this wind range as a novice, but it will be because you have made a mistake rather than as a result of high wind pressure on the sails.

What Wind Speed do Experienced Sailors Prefer?

Every sailor develops their own comfort zone throughout their career, and it can change over time.

An experienced sailor in a small dinghy will want around 10 knots. This is a steady breeze, and there are no white caps, yet so there are no waves to have to pound through.

An experienced sailor in a smaller keelboat, say 26 feet or less, will usually prefer to be in 10-15 knots. This will move their boat steadily, and the waves will be minor and easy to deal with.

A larger keelboat, particularly 40 feet and up, will want more breeze to sail steadily in. An experienced sailor in a boat this size will usually prefer winds in the moderate range of 15-18 knots.

Experienced catamaran sailors will also usually prefer moderate winds in the 13-16 knot range.

How Much Wind Do You Need to be Able to Sail?

The amount of wind necessary to sail depends on the kind of sailboat you are on.

If you are on a small dinghy, such as a Sunfish or a Laser, you can sail in less than 5 knots. It might not be much fun, but if you read the wind and get on, say a beam reach, you can move the boat at a very casual clip.

For the majority of boats, the answer to this question is at least 5 knots. While still light air, it is usually enough to give the sails some lift when sailing upwind or fill them a bit when sailing downwind.

Some boats will want more wind to perform. Foiling moths need more than 5 knots to get up onto the foils; generally, this is at least 8 knots, depending on the sailor’s weight.

Catamarans can sail in 5 knots, but they need more wind to get a hull out of the water; this varies by the catamaran type and whether it is one or two people, but generally, this is around 9 knots.

What Type of Sailboat is Easiest to Sail Regardless of Wind Speed?

This is a bit of a trick question.

One of the easiest boats to sail is, by far, the Sunfish. It is an easy rig and a forgiving boat, but in high winds, you will rapidly find yourself being overpowered and facing the constant threat of flipping.

A smaller keelboat will therefore be the easiest to sail regardless of wind speed. In light air, you can still move the boat; in heavier air, your keel will provide righting momentum to counter the force against the sails.

There are several examples, but a common boat worldwide that fits the bill is the J/24. You will want a crew to handle the boat, but an experienced sailor can handle this boat single-handed in almost any wind in a pinch.

There is, of course, a time when you will want to head for port, but the best sailboat for ease of handling in all conditions will be a smaller keelboat.

At What Wind Speed Does Sailing Become Dangerous?

The wind speed that sailing becomes dangerous varies by the oat and also the sailor’s experience.

Depending on the area, sustained winds of 20 knots can generate large waves, as high as 5 feet. This can be a problem for most dinghies, so by this time, most of them are heading inshore.

This is a bigger problem on lakes, as you can hit bottom in the trough of a wave, so most dinghies have already headed for shore before winds reach this speed.

On the Beaufort Wind Scale, the range of 22-27 knots is considered a Strong Breeze. At this point, even experienced sailors in most dinghies are in danger of capsizing.

Smaller keelboats will be in danger of taking knockdowns at this wind speed, particularly for inexperienced sailors. Small Craft Advisories are in effect at this wind speed.

Small Craft Advisories become Special Marine Warnings when there are gusts of up to 34 knots. Even the most experienced sailors will have their hands full in these conditions. While you might not capsize the boat, you are in danger of tearing sails or damaging the rigging in these winds.

While sailors can and often do find themselves in winds this strong or even higher (such as being caught in a storm while bluewater sailing), this is the wind speed where sailing becomes dangerous.

What Happens When the Wind Speed Increases While you Sail?

Changes in wind speed are common on the water, particularly if you are sailing for most of the day.

Being prepared for this is a central part of being able to sail your boat.

When the wind increases, you may not have to make much adjustment if the day was one of light air to begin with. All you have to do is pay a little more attention!

But if winds were moderate and have now increased to heavier winds, you will have to take other action. This generally involves reducing sail area, which in turn reduces pressure on the boat.

If you are on a larger keelboat, you have a few options. You can reef the mainsail, which means lowering it a certain amount. Most mains have one or two reef points, a series of reinforcements that serve as new corners of the sail, essentially becoming the new tack, clew, and foot.

These reefs will usually be at 12% and 28% of the luff length, as this dodges the battens. Depending on the sail’s configuration, this generally reduces sail area by 20% or more for each reef.

You can also change to a smaller headsail and significantly reduce the sail area. You will always want to keep a headsail up, though, as it provides directional stability, even if it is a storm jib. This is essential in high winds, as you do not want to lose steerage; that will cause major problems in a gale or storm.

Some dinghies have reef points on their sails and some that can reef by wrapping around the mast or boom, but you will be heading for shore as the wind increases far sooner in a dinghy than you would in a keelboat.

Final Thoughts

if you average all of the boats and experience levels we have discussed, you will arrive at a favorable wind speed of about 10 knots.

This steady breeze will move any sailboat comfortably and not be enough to endanger a sailor of any experience level.

While every sailor and boat has their own comfort zone, the majority agree that a wind speed of 10 knots is about the best for sailing.

Beaufort Wind Scale

Marine Safety Rules – National Weather Service

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How to Sail Comfortably in 20 Knots of Wind

By patrick twohy.

It’s April, and for San Francisco Bay sailors that means one thing: Flame on! Starting about now, our famous winds start up — and keep going. Within a few weeks, we’ll be having our usual small craft advisories on the bay just about every afternoon. 

If you sail here, it’s something you come to view as normal and generally no big deal. 

Except… if you haven’t figured out yet how to downshift from full-sail, light-wind sailing. For you, this idea of sailing in wind that turns the bay into semi-froth might seem more than a little daunting. 

If that’s the case, this is the article for you. It’ll show you how to get yourself and your boat set up to sail comfortably and happily even as the wind tries to blow your eyebrows off. 

Step one: Recognize that it’s probably going to be windy. You can confirm that a number of ways. Here are four ways to do that.

1) The NOAA marine weather forecast for the South Bay is also found on our resource page .

2) You can also check your favorite weather app, but please be aware that, in my experience, those apps are essentially useless for predicting wind with any accuracy on San Francisco Bay.  They’ll give you a number, but there’s very little chance it’ll be even close to correct.

The one exception to that rule is the paid version of an app and web site called SailFlow . SailFlow’s paid versions have wind forecasts that are frequently completely at odds with the (generally inaccurate) free forecasts provided by SailFlow. (Subscriptions cost about $4/month and up.) 

3) Check the latest wind data from the weather station that NOAA maintains at the Port of Redwood City . The data are updated on the site every 6 minutes but, oddly, the most recent report is never less than 20 minutes old.  

(The same data is also available through the free SailFlow version, along with data from a large number of other sites.)

4) Finally, when you arrive at the marina, look to the southwest. If you see fingers of fog poking over the coastal range, it’s either already windy on the bay or it’s probably going to get windy. No fog fingers, probably means it won’t get too windy on the water.

Step two: Plan to rig your boat for windy conditions. Primarily, that means get comfortable with reefing your mainsail and rolling up some or all of your jib. But there’s a lot more you can and should also do. Think of these as shifting to lower gears, as you would in your car if you’re heading up a steep hill. 

Here are five ways to downshift to handle higher winds.

1) Tighten your outhaul. This will help flatten the mainsail and help to reduce excess heel. 

2) If the wind is reaching 10 knots (meaning you see whitecaps on the open bay) and you’re beginning to feel a little over-powered, ease your traveler down to leeward and tighten your mainsheet. If you’re close-hauled, the idea is to keep your boom in about the same position it would be if the traveler were centered. 

The idea is to give the mainsail less leverage to heel your boat.  

3) Tighten your backstay. This is particularly helpful on Merit 25s, which have a fractional rig. Tightening the backstay on a fractional rig boat helps to flatten the mainsail while also stabilizing the luff of the jib. 

4) As the wind gets stronger, you’re going to induce some twist in your mainsail, which means you’re going to luff the top of your mainsail — which has the most leverage to heel your boat — while the lower portion of your main continues to draw normally. Doing this requires adjusting four items: Traveler, sheet, vang and potentially mainsail topping lift. 

First, ease your vang to let your boom rise. Second, move your traveler to windward while easing your mainsheet. Once again, the idea is that your boom’s angle to the wind shouldn’t change. These three steps will have the effect of loosening tension on your mainsail leach, allowing the top part of the leach to pay out slightly to leeward. You can ensure that effect by tightening the main boom topping lift. 

I think of the topping lift and the vang as two parts of the same tool whose job is to set the boom’s vertical position. 

5) As the windspeed moves above 15 knots, it’s time to reef the mainsail, which you can do while heaved to. Or, if you think it’s going to get windy while you’re out, you can reef as part of the process of raising your mainsail. 

Each of the previous four steps — using your traveler, backstay, vang, topping lift and mainsheet to shape the mainsail — also function under a reefed mainsail. So as the wind nears 20 knots, you can combine some of these steps. 

If you’ve reefed your mainsail, it’s probably also time to reef your jib. You can roll it partway or completely, depending on conditions. That will make the boat easier to steer — and your jib trimmers will have a dramatically easier task trimming the sail. 

If the wind is strong, you may find the violently luffing jib difficult to roll in. Try turning the boat to a broad reach, being careful to avoid an accidental jibe. That will reduce your apparent wind, and your jib will be partly in the wind shadow of the mainsail, both of which will make it easier to roll in the jib.

Step three: Experiment with these tools. Try easing the traveler to leeward and see how your heel angle changes. Try easing the vang and see what happens to heel. Try tightening the backstay and observe heel angle. 

Get comfortable with these controls and you’ll find you’re able to sail in the bay’s exuberant winds with confidence.

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Understanding The Wind

Billowing smoke. Swirling dust and sand. Dancing leaves. Pinwheels, flags, windmills, kites. Ocean waves, sand dunes and snow drifts. The wind is invisible, yet we can see and feel it all around us. It is chilling in winter, a welcome refreshment in summer, and potentially destructive almost anytime.

There is no better place to experience the wind than out on the water in a small sailboat. By definition, a sailboat exists because of the wind. It gathers all its life from the breeze and is helpless when the wind disappears. Sailors put up sails to harvest the energy of the wind, and they take down sails when they are overpowered by its awesome force.
     

My first Bermuda Race, in 1972, was a good demonstration of the wind's many attitudes. Two days out of Newport, R.I., we were becalmed in the middle of the meandering Gulf Stream. I remember staring incredulously at an ocean as calm as a pond at dusk. We even went swimming! Twenty four hours later, however, we sailed into a near-hurricane, with winds over 50 knots. The millpond had turned into a maelstrom, and we were slamming off the backs of 20-foot waves. The contrast was incredible.
     

Whether racing or daysailing, getting tuned in to the wind is probably the most important thing a sailor can do. In fact, you must feel comfortable with the wind before you'll ever feel in control of your boat.
     

There are two aspects of the wind that are important: strength and direction. Before heading out on the water, try to get a good feel for both of these variables. You won't want to go sailing, for example, if gale force winds are expected; this wouldn't help your enjoyment of the sport. You might also want to avoid sailing in a strong offshore breeze until you're confident of your ability to sail upwind -- unless, of course, you've always wanted to make that 10-mile trip to the other side of the bay.
     

There are several ways to get an idea of wind strength and direction before you head out on the water. The first is simply your own observation. As author Dave Perry once said, "When I wake up and see my mailbox blowing sideways, I get a sudden urge to mow the lawn." The British have come up with a system of judging wind strength on land, called the Beaufort scale. This offers a good way to judge how hard it's blowing by looking at the activity of the trees. Be careful of underestimating the wind this way, however. There will usually be more breeze out on the water than in the seclusion of your own backyard.|     
     

Another way to get an idea of wind strength and direction is by listening to the weather report on your local radio station. Don't put too much faith in these predictions, however, since they're often generalizations bearing little resemblance to reality. When I was sailing as a kid, our local weatherman used to broadcast from the station's airplane while flying over Long Island Sound. We'd be sitting in our boats, totally becalmed, when out of our radios would come a report that the wind was blowing15-20 knots from the south. We used to joke that the weatherman was holding his anemometer out the window of the plane.
     

A more reliable source of wind and weather predictions are broadcasts by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA). These are continuous weather updates on special frequencies. They provide information such as: "Winds will be south to southwest this morning at 5 to 10 knots, shifting to westerly this afternoon and building to 15 to 20. Wave heights one to three feet on the bay, three to six feet on the ocean. Small craft advisories will be in effect this afternoon and small craft warnings should be heeded after 5:00 tonight. High tide at Long Point at 1:14 pm." This is the kind of information that anyone heading out for a sail really needs to know. 
     

Once you've decided that conditions are satisfactory for sailing, it's time to head out on the water. Here it will be easier to gauge wind direction and strength because you are not shielded by trees or buildings, and you can easily see the wind on the water.

Wind Direction

An experienced sailor knows the wind direction at all times. This information is very important for trimming your sails and handling your boat properly. When we talk about wind direction, we mean where the wind is blowing from (not where it's going to). There are a number of ways to determine this.
     

When I learned to sail, I was taught a method  known to old salts as "holding a finger to the wind." To do this, put your forefinger in the water (or in your mouth) to get it wet and then hold it up in the wind. Wherever you feel the most coolness on your finger is where the wind is coming from. I can't say I've used this method too recently, but I think it still works.
      A more reliable guide, for both wind direction and strength, is simply the feel of the wind on your body. America's Cup skipper Dennis Conner reportedly gets his hair cut very short before major regattas so he'll be able to feel the wind on the back of his neck. This way it's easier for him to sense a change in wind direction or strength without having to look around all the time.
     

Since we're not all quite as intuitive as Dennis Conner, it's definitely helpful to have a few visual clues to help us determine wind direction. My personal method of choice for determining wind direction is to use ripples on the water. I look toward the wind and try to direct my line of sight so it bisects the ripples (is in line with the direction they're moving). Sometimes I stick my arm out straight toward the wind at the same time, and move my arm until it is perpendicular to the ripples. Then I am pointing at the wind.
     

I remember iceboating for the first time a couple years ago. Until that time, I could never figure out how iceboaters knew what the wind was doing. It seemed that, without ripples on the water, the wind was truly invisible. That day I learned this was true to a certain extent, but I also learned I could tell a lot about the wind by feeling what it was doing to my boat. This sense of feel is so important in sailing.
     

There are, of course, many other ways to figure out the wind direction. You can always look at flags (on land or on boats), or smoke that's coming out of a smokestack.  Other indicators are telltales, usually made of yarn, that are tied to your boat's shrouds and a masthead "fly" on top of your mast. Some bigger boats even have instruments, connected to the masthead unit, that give you a continuous readout on wind direction and velocity. Unfortunately, that's a luxury you probably won't ever find on a small boat.
     

A more scientific way to tell wind direction is to let your sails luff completely. Just let your sheets go for a few seconds. The sails will start flapping and will move to a position that is lined up with the flow of the wind. If you look where the sails are pointing, that's where the wind is coming from.
     

One refinement of this technique is to let your sails flap and turn your boat so the sails are luffing along the centerline of the boat. Now the bow of your boat is pointing toward the wind. This technique is often used by racing sailors who are trying to find the wind direction before the start of a race.
     

One of the hardest times to tell wind direction is when the wind is so light that you can't see any ripples on the water. Some racing sailors light up a cigarette so they can watch where the smoke goes. I like the idea of blowing soap bubbles and watching where these float. When the bubbles hover in your cockpit, you know you've got a real drifter on your hands!

Wind Strength

Knowing (and being able to anticipate) the strength of the wind is very important for both safety and performance. When I was 14, I was sailing my 13-foot Blue Jay home from a race when we were suddenly caught in a 40-knot squall. At that age, I didn't know the wind could blow so hard or that it could come up so suddenly. We capsized immediately and spent 30 long minutes in the water but, fortunately, we were rescued.
      It's very important to know when a squall is coming or when the wind is about to die for the evening (and make you paddle home). Here are some useful rules of thumb.

      1) The key to anticipating the strength of the wind coming toward you is the appearance of ripples on the water. (Don't confuse the larger wave pattern with tiny wavelets created by the wind.) Basically, the closer together the ripples are, the more wind there is.

      2) Another sign is the color of the water surface. The darker the water, the more wind there is. The reason for this is that when you have a lot of wind ripples, less of the sky's brightness will be reflected to your eyes. You can often see puffs (dark blotches) moving across the water.

      3) If you're looking into the sun, the glare will make it look like there's more wind than if you're looking away from the sun. Also, the breeze looks stronger if you're looking into the wind than if you're looking away from the wind. This is because the back sides of the ripples are less steep and therefore reflect more of the light-colored sky.

      4) When whitecaps just begin to form on top of the waves (in an open body of water), the wind is blowing about 12 or 13 knots. Most boats begin to get overpowered around this velocity.

      5) Other good guides for wind strength are: a) the action of smoke coming out of smokestacks; b) how straight flags are blowing; and c) how much other boats are heeled.

In the United States, the National Weather Service, a branch of the NOAA, uses a system of signals to warn sailors about high winds and storms. For example, if you see a triangular red flag on the flagpole at your local marina or yacht club, a small craft warning has been posted. This means that wind and sea conditions are such that small boats should not go out. Other signals warn of gale winds and hurricanes. You should definitely know these signals and where they are displayed in your area.
     

Before leaving this subject, we should mention that wind speeds, like boat speeds, are almost always measured in "knots." A knot is defined as one nautical mile per hour. A nautical mile is 6,080 feet, or 14% longer than a statute mile (5,280 feet). Thus, if the wind velocity is 20 knots, it is blowing about 23 miles per hour.

True vs. Apparent Wind 
There is another factor affecting wind strength and direction that we haven't mentioned yet. It has to do with the wind caused by your boat moving through the water. Let's go back for a minute to the meteorologist who held his anemometer out the window of the plane. Even though the boats below had no breeze, he really did feel a strong wind from the south. The reason is that the plane was flying fast in a southerly direction. It's like putting your hand out the window of your car on the interstate. You'll feel a breeze about 60 miles per hour.
     

The breeze you feel from a moving plane or car is called the "apparent" wind. It works the same for boats, though the effect is less pronounced. Let's pretend you are standing on the end of a dock and the wind you feel is 8 knots from the north. This is called the "true" wind. Now I come sailing by you at five knots, heading east. The wind instruments on my boat say the wind I feel is blowing 10 knots from the northeast. This is my apparent wind; it's a combination of the true wind you feel, plus the wind caused by my boat moving through the water.
     

When sailing upwind, your apparent wind will be greater than the true wind; if you're sailing downwind, it will be less. The direction of your apparent wind will always be shifted more toward your bow than the true wind. As a sailor, you should be concerned primarily with the apparent wind, because this is the wind in which you sail and it determines how you must trim your sails. That's why it's OK to use telltales and a masthead fly (both of which indicate apparent wind) to determine wind direction.    
     

Whether you're a racer or day sailor, not knowing the wind strength and direction is like driving blindfolded. If you take off the blindfold, suddenly you can predict the sharp turns and give a little more gas before the hills. You'll know where to point your boat and how far in to pull the sails. It's important to keep trying to understand the wind no matter what else you do. This will make learning the sport and controlling your boat much easier.

How the Wind Makes a Sailboat Go 


Sailboats are machines that harness the wind for their power. It's easy to understand how the wind can push a boat along with it, but a lot more difficult to figure out how a boat can actually make progress into the wind.  It's a little like trying to comprehend how airplanes ever get off the ground.
     

When I was a young aspiring sailor, I used to build crude model boats consisting of a rectangular piece of wood for a hull, with some sort of stick mast and a square sail made from an old rag. My test area was usually the neighbor's pond, and I quickly learned one thing: the boat only sailed in one direction -- downwind. This meant I could only launch it from the upwind side of the pond.
     

The ancient sailors faced similar problems. Though they angled their sails to catch the wind and used a paddle to steer, they still had a hard time going anywhere except with the wind . Their eventual solution was a flat board that acted as a kind of brake. They put this board down into the water alongside the boat to keep them from moving sideways.
     

Today this flat board is called a keel or centerboard, and it's the secret to how a boat can sail into the wind. To imagine how it works, think about squeezing a watermelon seed. When you put pressure on both sides of the seed, it squirts in a direction that's perpendicular to the forces.
      

With a sailboat, the wind is pushing on the sails on one side while the water pushes on the centerboard, rudder and hull on the other side. As the boat is squeezed by these two forces, it "squirts" forward and is thus able to sail upwind. There are, of course, many more complicated aerodynamic and hydrodynamic reasons why this works, but the important thing to know is that without your keel or centerboard you could not sail toward the wind.

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Apparent wind explained, apparent wind / true wind.

The issue of wind direction and strength becomes complicated as soon as a boat starts to move. Telltales and wind vanes on mastheads only indicate the true wind when a boat is stationary.

As soon as it starts to move they react to a combination of wind and the boat’s movement – apparent wind.

Fig 12a shows a vector diagram for a boat on a beam reach. The long side of the trapezoid represents 10 knots of true wind drawn to scale while the short side of the trapezoid shows the boat speed, 6 knots. The long diagonal represents the apparent wind. Note that the length of the line now shows 12 knots of wind speed and the angle of the wind crossing the boat has decreased to 60°. In order to maintain the same entry angle to the wind, the boat’s mainsail and jib had to be trimmed on -meaning, pulled in – progressively as the boat accelerated.

Fig 12b shows the apparent wind for the same conditions with the boat sailing close-hauled, at 45° to the true wind. You can see that the apparent wind builds significantly and the entry angle closes down as the boat accelerates forward to a full speed of 6 knots.

Fig 12c shows the same boat broad reaching at six knots in the same wind. This time the apparent wind decreases but the entry angle still closes down.

In all three of the illustrations the sails had to be considerably re-trimmed as the boat increased speed, and boat speed varies all of the time. Wind speed and direction are rarely constant, so it follows that, to keep a boat moving efficiently through the water, the sails need almost constant re-trimming to cope with the constantly changing conditions.

Remember, as soon as you start moving the windex or woolies will only show you the apparent wind. The same is true of the more basic electronic wind insruments. To display true wind information the wind instrument must interface with the log, or speed input.

The above is an extract from the RYA book “SAIL TRIM hanbook for Cruiers” which is avaialble from Sailtrain.

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Average Speed of a Sailboat (Plus Top Speed)

Going fast in a sailboat can be lots of fun. But what is the average of a sailboat? Well, let's find out.

The delight and gratification that comes from speed can be a big plus for adrenaline-seeking sailors. Well, nothing can fire up the adrenaline more than having a speedy boat ride out on the water. This is essentially why having an idea of how fast a sailboat can go is of great importance. When it comes to looking at the speed of a sailboat, it can be crucial to consider the types of activities that you'll be using your sailboat for. In fact, your sailboat should only be considered ideal if it meets the level of expectations required of it in terms of speed and activities on the water. Even with this, the speeds of sailboats can vary based on several factors. But what is the average speed of a sailboat?

The top speed of a sailboat will vary based on its size and purpose. For example, high-end racing sailboats are purposely designed to reach maximum speeds while larger and bulkier sailboats may be slower due to drag and friction. That being said, the average speed of racing sailboats is 15 knots (17 mph). On the other hand, the average speed of cruising sailboats is 4-6 knots (4.5-7 mph) and can attain a top speed of 7 knots (8 mph). In essence, cruise speeds of over 8 knots are quite normal.

Let's get into the details.

Table of contents

Measuring Sailboat Speed

The nautical measurement of speed is the knot. According to the World Sailing Speed Council, one knot is equal to about 1.15 mph. The knot measurement is dependent on the circumference of the Earth. So if your sailboat is cruising at an average speed of 1 nautical mile per hour, it means that it's cruising at a speed of 1 knot.

Modern sailboats have GPS tracking devices that can be used to measure the distance covered, as well as the speed at which the sailboat is sailing.

Factors that Determine the Speed of a Sailboat

Different types of sailboats can attain different speeds. There are several factors that can determine the speed of a sailboat. Let's take a look.

The Length and Size of a Sailboat

While the speed of a sailboat will depend on several factors such as currents, wind conditions, and many other factors as we'll discuss later, the most important thing that can influence the speed of a sailboat is its size and length. You may be asking yourself; what's the connection between the length of a boat and its speed?

Well, the ability of a sailboat to go fast depends on the harmonizing act between its length and the power that drives it. When a sailboat moves through the water, it creates a pattern of waves. These waves include one along the side of the sailboat, which produces a ridge of water at the bow and a trough at the stern.

If the length of the wave is almost equal to the length of the boat, it creates a huge ridge that shoves the sailboat back into its trough, thereby slamming it up against an almost dense wall of water resistance. This then gives the sailboat sufficient speed to lift its bow out of the water and the ability to skim above the bow waves while allowing it to overcome the resistance that the water or the waves create.

A sailboat, of course, needs a lot of power to get over the hump in the resistance curve. So a longer boat will have a higher speed than a shorter boat. This is because a longer sailboat will create longer waves across its hull and move faster. On the other hand, short sailboats tend to generate shorter waves, thereby will have reduced speeds. In essence, it's almost impossible for a sailboat to travel faster than the speed of a wave if the wave is longer than the boat.

In most cases, boat designers create extreme lengths to get boats over the mound of the wave resistance. While a lightweight boat can easily achieve this, it can leave you shorthanded in heavy winds as it can be easily pushed by the winds. Again, it may not have the stability needed to carry enough sails to get the appropriate power to sail on the water. So if the boat is light, it should at least have a double hull to at least compensate for its instability.

The Shape of the Hull

This may be hard to believe but some hulls are more efficient than others when it comes to creating the wave resistance that is needed to move the boat. Generally, hulls should be very slim and carefully shaped. Keep in mind that a sailboat that has a hull that's shaped like a fat tub will not be as fast as a sailboat with a very slim hull even if they're of the same length.

A proper indication that the hull has the ability to be faster depends on its aft or buttock lines. If a hull has a straight line from the lowest point of the hull to the transom and the transom is a little bit wide, the boat will not only be stable but will be much faster. On the contrary, a hull that curves a lot but has a narrow stern may not be that fast. In essence, hulls play an integral role in slicing through the water and do not push water aside and down.

Comparing the Speeds of Catamarans and Monohulls

Are catamaran or trimaran hulls more superior to Monohulls in terms of speed? Well, cruising on a sailboat with a cat hull will be much faster than cruising on a sailboat with a monohull by 25%-30% if the two sailboats are of the same length. A catamaran hull will not only achieve speeds of a racing monohull but will be more comfortable to sail on.

A tri-hull is even much better in the sense that they're generally designed towards the performance end of the spectrum. They will, therefore, double the speed of a racing monohull.

The only downside of a cat and trimaran hull is that they're more sensitive to loading and their performances will significantly suffer if they're loaded. On the other hand, a monohull can perfectly handle loading and this is a huge advantage is you're planning to sail with a crew. To this end, you should consider keeping your cat or tri boat as light as possible if you want to maximize speed. We all know that keeping your sailboat light is as difficult as they come but it's of importance if speed is your main goal.

Monohull (6-8 knots)

Most average sailboats are designed with monohulls. They're generally displacement hulls designed to split through the underwater. This not only stabilizes the boat but slices through the water smoothly. If you want to make a monohull sailboat much faster, you can consider raising the entire hull above the water.

Catamarans and Trimarans (9-10 knots)

Unlike monohulls, cats and trimarans are located on top of the water. This means that they'll be displacing less water, thereby making them a lot faster. The only downside is that this design will make the boat less stable, which can be a cause for concern given that safety should always come first while on the water. This is essentially why catamarans and trimarans have two and three hulls respectively. This will, however, make the boat extremely buoyant.

Waves play a critical role not just in the speed of your boat but also in the safety of your boat. We all know that waves are very unpredictable. They can be calm and gentle but can suddenly become wild, confusing, irregular, and angry.

Generally described as freaks or rogues, waves can be very dangerous. They can bully your boat and attempt to roll it over. Waves can also make your boat faster or slower. As such, waves can either positively or negatively affect the speed of your sailboat. Given that calm waves cannot be appropriate in achieving the maximum speed of your boat, the right wave condition that should enable your sailboat to move faster should overlap and interfere in the right way.

The wind is the only thing that propels sailboats. The wind will fill up the sails, which is then used to move the boat. Both true winds and apparent winds can be integral in moving the boat forward. True wind is essentially the type of wind you feel when you stand still and it's what pushes a boat. Needless to say, strong winds may move a sailboat faster than calm winds but this may depend on the wind direction.

How to Improve the Speed of Your Sailboat

Having looked at the average speed of a sailboat, as well as factors that may affect its speed, it's important to highlight how to improve the speed of your sailboat.

It's important to make sure that your sailboat is properly designed to attain maximum speed. The sailboat should also be properly maintained and serviced to work at maximum speed. Make sure that the hull and foils are clean and in perfect shapes. Here's what to do.

• ‍ Make sure that the foils do not have seaweeds or plastic bags
• Ensure that the hull is in tip-top shape and can hold tension
• Make sure that the sails are in the right conditions
• Make sure that the masts have the right stiffness

You may have a lot of difficulties reaching your targeted speed if the weight of the crew exceeds the appropriate capacity of your sailboat. This is because there will be some sort of drag and tension and this may significantly hinder the speed at which the boat travels. In essence, a lighter boat may be a lot faster than a heavier boat. This is what you should do.

• ‍ Make sure that the weight is appropriate
• Ensure that the boats overall weight is moving aft and out appropriately
• Make sure that the maximum weight is not exceeded

The settings of your sailboat can either negatively or positively affect its speed. For instance, you should make sure that the mast rakes, mast step position, shroud tensions. Jib car position, vang tension, and keel position, as well as any other part of the sailboat, are perfectly set to make the boat faster.

You should compare various settings and figure out which type of settings gives you maximum speed. Here are some of the things to do.

• ‍ Ensure that jib cars are in the right position
• Make sure that your mainsails are in the right position
• The vang tension should be efficient

The technique you use on your sailboat can make a difference when it comes to your speed. Techniques such as steering and trimming can be a huge speed factor, particularly when the conditions at sea are difficult. You should also have varying trimming techniques. Here are some important skills.

• ‍ Know how to steer perfectly
• Know how to control primary upwind
• Know the right amount of curl to have in your kite
• Make sure that you're pumping efficiently
• Know how to play the jibs and genoas

These factors can be of great importance in increasing the speed of your sailboat. You can use them efficiently next time you want to be up to speed.

Bottom Line

Sailing speed is, without a doubt, one of the most favorite discussions among sailors. Most sailors often try to figure out how to make their sailboats faster or why a given sailboat is faster than another one. In essence, the average speed of a sailboat ranges between 4 knots to 15 knots but this may depend on the size and type of the sailboat, as well as other factors. This means that the average speed of sailboats is 8 knots but there several factors such as the type of the hull, waves, and wind conditions can affect the speed of your sailboat.

It's, therefore, important to know how these factors may affect your speed and what you need to do about them. For example, your sailboat may not be as fast as you may want if it's not properly prepared or maintained.

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Daniel Wade

I've personally had thousands of questions about sailing and sailboats over the years. As I learn and experience sailing, and the community, I share the answers that work and make sense to me, here on Life of Sailing.

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Sailboat for constant 15-20 knots of wind

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I'm looking for a boat that can tame the conditions off the east coast of Puerto Rico where I just moved. It's similar to San Francisco outside of the Golden Gate, not like the Chesapeake where I've done most of my sailing. 90% of the days have a 15 - 20 knot breeze and 2-6 foot for swell. It's beautiful but very active out there. I see 30" power boats airborne over the swells and that's on a normal day. I'm looking for a boat that can tame this into an enjoyable afternoon sail and also be a cruiser to the nearby islands of Vieques, BVI and US Virgins. I have a water view so I watch to see what is out there - there are very few sailboats off the coast. My budget is $100 - $200K. At first I was thinking 40 foot minimum but it is probably more about the boat that the size. I had a Hunter 1999 340 and it was a poor sailor in anything over 10 knots so I know that not just any decent boat will be fun here. I'm thinking of a newer Beneteau or Jeanneau which are bargains here from the charter operators but maybe I want an old heavy beast such as a Endeavor or C&C. I just don't want the headaches or the dark closed-up designs of an old boat. Any newer boats that are more enjoyable than others in heavier weather? Any ideas on searching the forums for conversations on this? Thanks!  

I don't think that 15-20 kt is considered heavy weather. The last time I sailed it was in 30kt winds. Reefed main and a storm jib made the boat pretty easy to handle. I heard somewhere that most boats are designed to be sailed in about 12 kt winds. 15-20 isn't that far out of the range.  

Think about something like this....not a "newer" boat, but not too long in the tooth and extremely well designed and built. Would also think about a J-40 or similar if you like a more sporty look and feel. 1990 Passport Yachts 41 Sail Boat For Sale - www.yachtworld.com  

Living and sailing about 40 miles east of you in the same conditions you describe, I think the sails are more important than the boat. Carry too much sail and most anything will be an uncomfortable handful. Reef appropriately and take anything out with a good rig and enjoy yourself. Go walk the docks at Puerto Del Rey and you will see everything from J boats to heavy cruisers. They all go out and most seem to get back... I raced last weekend against a guy in a Hunter 27 that he single-hands back and forth to Puerto Rico all the time. I sail one of those Freedoms recommended in post #3.  

I cruise the Eastern Caribbean and can second the need for something that handles winds in the 15 to 30 knot range. I have a 44 ft cutter with slab reefing on the main. I often tuck in the first reef as I pull the anchor. 25 knots is common but my old lady revels in this with one reef in the main and just the staysail.. Most boats seem to handle it OK, the exception being the smaller cruising cats that can be seen hobby horsing badly in the Caribbean two step while making lots of leaway as they try to beat to the next island.  

I would agree with those that are encouraging reefing early. I am familiar with Catalinas and I know that Jerry Douglas designed those boats to be reefed at 15 knots true. Given that, look for a boat that is setup to be reefed easily and well. For this reason I would avoid in-mast furlers but if you find a boat with a good in-boom furler consider it. Also maybe consider boats that have a 3/4 headsail rig instead of masthead. Finally, pick a headsail appropriate to your conditions such as a 120 or 130 rather than a 150.  

Island Packet, full keel, heavy, built for the sea not racing. Modern design inside. Keep it away from the shallows though. Enjoy!  

I chartered a Jeanneau 409 out of Puerto Del Rey in April in the exact conditions you describe. The boat handled really well although I would have preferred not to have the shoal draft model and I'd probably skip the in-mast furling if it were my boat (though it was convenient) because we weren't able to point very well heading east to Culebra. The interior felt a little cheap but I think that's the case for a lot of the new production boats. I put together a video of the trip - it's a mix of sailing and other stuff but at least it'll give you an idea...the sailing in that area was awesome.  

Dan, I guess it depends on what you want to do. But in very similar conditions we have fallen in love with our Corsair Sprint 750 (24' trimaran) located in Jamaica. With her speed and stability even given the shorter mast we can easily blast through the lulls in wave troughs, and the big easy platform makes having a lot of people aboard pretty comfortable. If you are willing to spend more I would certainly look in the larger end of the range however. The 24' doesn't have much to recommend it for cruising, but as a day sailor it is unbeatable.  

What about chartering a Jeanneau 349 or 409 to see how you like the feel? A week around Fajardo/Vieques/Culebra should gain you some perspective: Puerto Rico Yacht Charters - Bareboat Sailing & Catamaran Charters Spanish Virgin Islands  

Thanks to everyone for all the advice. There were days - no months -- on the Chesapeake that I'd have given my right arm for winds like we have here. But not everyday, every sail. Reefing is good advice but I'm thinking more about boat design at the moment. Trying to get an idea of what will be more comfortable in heavier seas. I appreciate the Freedom, Island Packet and Passport recommendations. Brian - great video - you have a gift for editing. Were the videos from just the Spanish Virgins or did you go to the BVI? Chartering is a good idea. Maybe I'm being too tight but that is a few thousand I could put towards my purchase. It would only show how one brand performs. But it is an option that I may do. Would a performance boat be more or less comfortable in heavier seas? Just to illustrate - a Beneteau Oceanic verses a Beneteau First? Or a Swan verses a Island Packet?  

[email protected] said: Brian - great video - you have a gift for editing. Were the videos from just the Spanish Virgins or did you go to the BVI? Click to expand...

I have posted detailed responses and "thank yous" several times to this forums. I hope htis one makes it but I'm not going ti invest the time. If you get this, know that your input is appreciated.  

You can find a fairly new (10 years) Island Packet 380 in the upper range of your budget that would likely fit your needs nicely. These are very roomy, quality boats that handle this type of seas very well.  

A heavier boat is going to be more comfortable in those conditions. And look for one with good stability. A decent ballast/displacement ratio will help with that. I see too many newer coastal cruising boats boats with very low ballast ratios that compensate with a small rig. I'd rather have a stiffer boat that can carry more sail area but can be easily reefed.  

svzephyr44: That is really helpful advice and comments. Thanks. I came upon a Hanse 461 at a good value and decided to go with that. It is fast, points high into the wind and has an 8.5' draft. I think it will be a nice balance. Appreciate everyone comments here.  

We sail a Jeanneau DS40 that is 2001 launched 2003. She is a bit heavier than the newer Jeanneaus and sails great in those winds. We have sailed both sides of the Caribbean, the entire east coast of the USA twice and spent a summer in the Chesapeake along with an Atlantic crossing and now 3 years in the Med. We have inmast furling and would have nothing else. We simply love it and regardless of what folks say we spent 5 days crossing from Colombia sailing 42 degrees on the wind. She does point fairly well. And we have motto - reef early reef often -- and it works for us. We want comfortable sailing conditions without overstressing the boat. In our Atlantic crossing we had 3 days of winds 30-35 and seas to 4 meters and we just reefered her down and she sailed great without pounding the crap out of us or the boat. She is shoal draft at originally 4'11'" but the last time we put her on the ground we were at 5'3" - we have added a bit of weight to her. Take a serious look at a Jeanneau and I will not start on inmast furling as there are more threads on this board about it than you can count. Good luck.  

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Essential Knots for Boaters: A Quick Guide

Whether you're a solo boater or just starting out, knowing a few basic knots can come in handy during your adventures on the water. In this quick guide, we'll cover some essential knots  that every boater should have in their repertoire.

1. The Bowline

The bowline is a reliable knot for forming a loop at the end of a rope. It's perfect for attaching lines to cleats, mooring buoys, or other objects.

How to tie it:

Form a loop in the working end of the rope.

Pass the working end up through the loop and around the standing part.

Pull the working end through the loop again.

2. The Clove Hitch

The clove hitch is a simple knot used for temporarily securing a rope to an object. It's often used for attaching lines to stanchions or other fixed points on the boat.

Wrap the working end of the rope around the object.

Pass the working end over the standing part and back through the loop.

3. The Figure-Eight Knot

The figure-eight knot is a simple stopper knot used to prevent the end of a rope from unraveling. It's often used to secure the end of a rope before attaching it to a cleat or other object.

Pass the working end around the standing part and back through the loop.

Tighten the knot.

4. The Prusik Knot

The Prusik knot is a climbing knot that can be used to ascend a rope or secure a line to a fixed object.

Make a loop in the working end of the rope.

Pass the working end around the standing part.

Pull the loop tight.

Master the Essential Knots with  THUNDER MARINE Knowing these essential knots is a valuable skill for any boater, and  THUNDER MARINE  is here to help you master them. Our experienced crew can provide hands-on instruction and guidance, ensuring you're confident in your knot-tying abilities.

Choose your boat with  thunder marine  today and learn these essential knots while enjoying a memorable boating experience., leave a comment.

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Practical Sailor Classic: The Load on Your Rode

Our time spent testing anchors has prompted some important musings; we offer the following thoughts regarding the forces and factors to be considered before purchasing anchors and rodes..

Without really meaning to, over the past several years, Practical Sailor has acquired a considerable reputation for testing anchors and anchoring gear. On more than a dozen occasions anchor makers have sent anchors to be included in these PS tests. Inventors, too, have sent prototypes. (The notion of a perfect anchor is so intriguing that inventors are, we’re positive, out there working right now.)

When PS first looked at this situation back in 1997, there had been dozens of tests run by manufacturers (and testing organizations in their pay), other magazines, independent authors of books on the subject, and even government-allied groups. Among these were the French APAVE, the U.S. Navy tests, the RNLI (Royal National Lifeboat Institution) in England, the Boat/US-Cruising World magazine strength tests, the Dutch tests (done in a huge sandbox), the on-going tests by naval architect and author, the late Robert A. Smith, and the extensive “Seattle Tests” co-sponsored by the Safety at Sea Committee of the Sailing Foundation and West Marine.

Close examination of the results of these tests, plus careful readings of books, like Earl Hinz’s Complete Book of Anchoring & Mooring, Don Bamford’s Anchoring, and the revered Chapman’s (probably the best-selling marine book of all-time), suggested to PS that the tests were too omnibus (in most cases, the bottom was not even known or varied). The tests tried to do it all.

In our due diligence, we also checked a new book, International Marine’s Small-Boat Seamanship Manual. It came out in 2002 and is “Based on the U.S. Coast Guard Seamanship Manual.” All the many photos were supplied by the Coast Guard. Only six pages are allotted to anchoring and the only table is a very small one supplied by Danforth, giving three anchor sizes for boats 10, 30 and 40 feet in length.

Another book we examined was Staying Put, by Brian Fagan, who enjoys a strong reputation on the California coast. The book has a minimal table showing boat size (20 to 50 feet); the recommended size of chain (both proof coil and high test) and nylon rode, and what size anchor, as long as it is a CQR, Delta, West Danforth type, or Bruce.

BETTER MOUSETRAPS?

One of sailing’s acknowledged authorities, John Rousmaniere, in his tome The Annapolis Book of Seamanship, uses tables from both the American Boat & Yacht Council and the Earl Hinz book mentioned above. The Hinz table deals only with Danforth-type, plow, Bruce, and yachtsman anchors, but does make chain and line rode recommendations. Rousmaniere also makes the puzzling statement, “Nylon rode should be half-inch in diameter for every nine feet of boat length overall.” Going by that prescription, a 40-foot boat needs a hawser more than two inches in diameter!

Another authority, Steve Dashew, in his huge (1,232 pages) Offshore Cruising Encyclopedia, tap-dances for a half dozen pages around the subject of anchor loads, but summarizes with: “You should carry the largest possible anchor and use it for everyday anchorages.” He also “suggests” as a main anchor “the largest Bruce you can carry, twice the size of what everyone else suggests…,” and a big Fortress as a second anchor. He likes a chain rode. We think it’s good, conservative advice.

DEALING WITH THE CONFLICTS

Because of all the conflicting and imprecise data, Practical Sailor concluded that anchor testing should be broken into small sections that can be assembled by a boat owner to suit his or her needs. It was determined that the predominant “sections” were:

1. Setting (if an anchor doesn’t set, it isn’t an anchor). 2. Holding (with dragging as a derivative). 3. Re-setting (or holding) when veered.

PS settled on four other factors to be considered, after the above three. They are: (1) the difficulty of breaking out; (2) weight on board; (3) quality of workmanship, as it pertains to long-term utility, and (4) ease of handling and stowage, either at the bow or in an anchor locker. For some owners, self-launching and automatic retrieval might be added to the list.

The next question is, of course, in what? Fine sand, coarse sand, that crusted sand found in tropical waters, good solid mud, gravel, the deep thin mud found in Massachusetts’ Nantucket Harbor (which was from 1800 until 1840 the whaling capital of the world), or the soupy ooze encountered in the tributaries of the Outer Banks of the Carolinas? That question led to the decision to conduct separate tests in clearly identified bottom conditions.

Next question: What kind of boat and what wind and water conditions? Along with bottom composition, these factors are vital.

After winnowing wearily through the possibilities for testing, PS settled—because we had to settle on something—on a 30- to 32-foot sailboat, in sheltered water, with no more than 40 knots of air (which is classified as the top end of a “fresh gale” or Beaufort 8).

Boat length and wind velocity are the two components in the tables usually seen in marine catalogs, manufacturer’s data, and general marine reference books. And a few include the boat’s beam.

The real questions for any boat owner are:

A. In what kind of conditions—wind, bottom and waves—do I expect to anchor?

B. For the conditions, how much of a load, or “pull,” will be exerted on the components (anchor, rode, shackles, etc.) in my anchoring gear?

Getting to that single figure isn’t easy. But without it, how can one select an anchor? Or a rode, or whether it should be nylon line or chain? And it’s even more difficult to reconcile this quandary with the customary tables that are intended to help you select an anchor.

West Marine’s 2004 catalog has an “Anchor Selection Guide” featuring tables that specify different styles of anchors (fluke, plow, Bruce, etc.) and specific models relative to boat length from 0 to 120 feet LOA. There’s also a full-page Advisor on anchor rodes.

(A pause here, if you please, in defense of such tables, which can’t possibly place on a single grid all the conditions that affect anchoring. The worst omission, however, is leaving out wind strength, a vital factor that could be stated in a single line.)

The 2003 Defender catalog has half a dozen tables supplied by manufacturers, such as Fortress, Guardian, Danforth, and Simpson Lawrence. The Fortress and Danforth charts show holding power in pounds, but only the Danforth data supplies wind strengths (20 knots and 60 knots).

The 2002 Boat/US catalog uses boat length and holding power in pounds for anchors made by Suncor, Danforth, CQR, Bruce, Fortress, Delta, and others. Stating the holding power is admirable, but for what wind strength?

“Holding power” (Item B above) is at the heart of anchor and rode selection. Put another way, it begs the question, just how hard does your boat pull on that anchor? And an integral part of the problem is (Item A above), “In what bottom and with what wind and waves?”

THE ABYC VS. ROBERT SMITH

The American Boat and Yacht Council calls holding power “Typical Design Horizontal Loads in Pounds.” Robert Smith, a naval architect and engineer who spent many long days testing anchors, calls it “Calculated Rode Tension in Wind and Waves.”

The ABYC data comes in a table reproduced in abbreviated form above. Smith’s table included in a sidebar at the end of the article. A cursory examination will tell you that they are wildly dissimilar.

For wind strengths, the ABYC table gives a set of figures for “Lunch Hook,” “Working Anchor” and “Storm Anchor,” which corresponds to winds of 15, 30, and 42 knots. If you expect to anchor in 60 knots (typical in summer thunderstorms), you multiply the “working anchor” value by four.

Along the other side of the table are boat lengths from 20 to 60 feet, in five-foot increments, but modified by a second column giving a boat’s beam (for both power and sail). A footnote says that for your boat, use whatever combination gives the highest load.

The ABYC data is good, conservative stuff, which is where one should be positioned when buying an anchor and a rode that will stand up to the extremes. The selection should be made on a thoughtful pre-determination of the worst conditions in which one expects to anchor. The problem is, of course, that after building an anchor system based on 42 knots you find yourself stuck in a rather open anchorage during a two-day gale that wasn’t supposed to happen.

In sharp contrast to the ABYC data is the data published in the table of the third edition of Robert Smith’s 1983 book called Anchors—Selection and Use (see table at end of article).

Smith told PS (a year or so before he died in June of 1997) that he obtained his data from testing in a level area of the Columbia River that has a fine sand bottom and a fetch of four miles to windward. He used several boats, both power and sail. With a 30-foot boat anchored in 30 knots of wind, the ABYC says the load on your anchor system will be 1,200 pounds. Using Smith’s figures, the load will be only 341 pounds. The figures, if used to help you determine what size anchor and rode to use, will produce radically different choices.

One more example: if you have a 30-foot sailboat and get caught on a night when a 60-knot squall goes through the protected harbor in which you’re anchored, the ABYC says the pull on your anchor rode will be 2,800 pounds. Smith says it would be 765 pounds. The ABYC figures are about 3.5 times greater than Smith’s. When asked to explain these wild discrepancies, Smith said, “I don’t know how they got their figures; mine are real, developed by actual testing.”

As originally explained by Tom Hale, then the ABYC’s technical director, the ABYC data was developed in the 1950s to indicate the strength required of an anchor bitt or cleat. Hale said it is not unreasonable to apply the figures in the chart entitled “Ground Tackle Loads” to the entire anchor system (as has been done in various catalogs and books). Hale said the ABYC tests (done with a 40-foot boat by Bob Ogg, who developed the Danforth anchor) assumed a “worst case” situation, including sea state and surge. Hale also said the figures were subjected to a hefty, but now unknown, safety factor that over the years has made the table a trustworthy guide.

Philippe Ras, the ABYC technical director until 2003, said the much-used Table 1 in H-40 of the “Anchoring, Mooring, and Lifting Section” of the ABYC’s voluminous standards now is entitled “Design Loads for Sizing Deck Hardware.”

FEEL LIKE SOME TOUGH MATH?

If you want information that’s less general, something more specific to your boat, you can calculate the load (or drag) on your ground tackle—that is if you’re very patient, meticulous, and mathematically inclined.

It’s all based on Isaac Newton’s wind-drag data, developed in the late 1600s, which became highly refined after the precision of aviation research subsequently improved.

As presented in Don Bamford’s book, Anchoring, the formula for drag (D) in pounds per square foot remains (see right):

Cd is the coefficient of drag, p is the density of air, V is the wind velocity in knots, S is the boat’s cross-sectional area (in square feet) taken at right angles to the wind.

You can, for p, substitute the U.S. standard atmospheric air density of .0023779.

For S, you’ll have to measure and do some geometry on your hull, mast, cabin, boom, dinghy, lifelines, stanchions, pulpit, and everything else (including any pretty girls you habitually carry up on the bow) that creates wind resistance. You then need to increase some of the figures for however much your boat yaws at an anchor.

For Cd values, Earl Hinz, in his book, The Complete Book of Anchoring and Mooring, supplied some general guidance with this table:

Angular tramp steamer – 1.2 Cabin cruiser – 1.0 Morgan OI-41 – .9 Oil tanker – .85 Cruising trimaran – .55 Racing trimaran – .45 Airplane – .09

Even better, Bamford says a sailboat with a “really sleek” superstructure will run as low as .70, but a blocky pilothouse or even a dinghy strapped on deck would push the figure to 1.00. He simply suggests using 1.00.

If you anchor in a current—say five knots, with a 40-foot boat, Hinz says to add 300 pounds to the load. Bamford says to add 10 percent.

For surge loading from wave action, Bamford says it isn’t important in normal anchoring, if you have a sure-fire way to prevent snubbing. Hinz says that in severe conditions, the up-and-down jerking can double the load, especially if the boat is heavy displacement.

Both Bamford and Hinz are emphatic in noting that the load increases as the square of the wind velocity. In other words, if the wind doubles from 30 to 60 knots, the load is four times greater.

Intimidating, isn’t it?

FURTHER BECLOUDING THE ISSUE

Neither the manufacturers’ data nor the Smith tables mention wave action; presumably, you’re supposed to anchor in very sheltered water, as we’d all prefer to do.

And in none of the data is there any mention of the bottom conditions, which is probably the greatest variable of all. Despite that getting the hook to “grip” is sometimes the most difficult facet of anchoring, the tables simply presume that you’ve induced the anchor to take a very firm hold on the bottom—be that sand, soft mud, hard clay, rock, shingle, coral, sawdust, or an old shipwreck—and that it will not drag in any wind shown on the table. (Perhaps the most surprising fact that emerged from PS’s many anchor tests is that an anchor never, ever stays put exactly; even a light load “works” an anchor in the direction of the pull.)

We firmly believe that anchors should be tested under different conditions to derive useful data. Good engineering practice holds that tests must support theoretical or calculated data (an anchor’s “holding power” often is calculated as “frontal area” by the manufacturer.) And with anchors, testing is not easy, not only because of the many variables, but also because it’s plain hard work.

As mentioned, there is no dearth of tests. Some are independent tests; more often they are sponsored by an anchor manufacturer or inventor. We’ve never seen a sponsored test that did not come out favoring the sponsor’s anchors; those that don’t must get unpublicized burials. Peculiarly, even the independent tests never have produced results that point a shining light on the perfect, all-purpose anchor, the one that sets every time and holds better than all others, in all bottoms. That has led most experienced sailors to conclude that you should carry two, or even three, different types of anchors.

Even the French-made Spade does not top all others in all of the PS tests.

THE BOTTOM LINE

So, what’s a body to do? What size anchor do you need? And what size nylon or chain rode should you use to hook it up? It depends, of course, on what kind of anchoring you expect to do. If you never venture out in anything even slightly resembling threatening weather, you can go with the recommendations of most manufacturers and those based on Robert Smith’s tables. Generally speaking, this data would appear to fall in the minimum category. Remember: You’re going with the minimum and there’ll be trouble if you get caught in any conditions other than that.

If you’re the type who prefers to be prepared for anything, you’ll need powerful gear based on the ABYC tables, which, compared with other advice, call for much heavier gear—both anchors and rodes.

Even when so equipped, there are places so notoriously bad for anchoring (such as off some of the California islands and the old, ooze-filled whaling harbor at Nantucket, south of Cape Cod) that savvy sailors don’t even attempt to anchor in these locales; they pick up moorings, go into docks, or leave.

In the final analysis, consistently successful anchoring calls—most of all—for good judgment based on knowledge and experience. And, here and there, a goodly helping of pure luck.

TESTING NEVER STOPS

RELATED ARTICLES MORE FROM AUTHOR

Safeguarding Sailors via Passage Guardian

The ABYC table indicates “design load.” Design load is defined as

“The total load on a structural system for the most severe combination of loads and forces which it is designed to sustain.” ( https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/design_load )

“…prescribed minimum load requirements are actually based on the expected maximum load […] over its lifetime. As such, design load requirements will exceed the true live load that a structure will actually bear.” https://www.nishkian.com/live-loads-explained-for-structural-design/

This I suspect is the major difference between the ABYC table and Mr. Smith’s empirical measurements. They’re both right; one way to think of it is the ABYC table includes a safety factor of 3.5x. But you want to size your system and equipment around the design load, not the live load.

Good history article. However, we have learned more since then. Let me add some of it here:

The reason the ABYC numbers are higher than common experience is because they are actual worst-case values, obtained when the boat is anchor in shallowish water, with all-chain rode and no snubber. In fact, PS documented this in “What is the Ideal Snubber Size,” March 2016, page 13. The average peak load is 3-4 times lower, but loads matching the the ABYC H-40 Table 1 figures are not only possible but probable if anchored in a worse-case location with all chain and no-snubber. In fact, further study of the ABYC H-40 standard reveals this, because the working load of a rope rode of the size recommended in table AP 1 is 3-4 times lower than Table 1, reflecting that loads are expected to be much lower with the impact absorption provided by the nylon rode. If you went by the fatigue strength in Table 1, you would be matching 7/8-inch rope with 1/4-inch G40 chain, which is ridiculous and would not pass the windlass. In fact, 1/2-inch rope is used with 1/4-inch chain, with a working load of 709 pounds vs. 2600 pounds for 1/4-inch G40 chain, or 3.7 times less. Nylon stretches, and thus the mystery is solved. The take away is to always use a snubber if anchored in shallow water (anything less than about 20 feet).

In fact, the peak load has less to do with wind force than the waves the wind generates. It is when a wave strikes, as the boat is yawing and the catenary comes out of the chain rode, that peak forces occur. This is VERY difficult to calculate, which is why several PS authors, primarily Drew Frye and Johnathan Neeves, spent weeks on the bows of several different boats ~ 2015-2018, measuring actual loads with a range of snubbers and yawing controls. Some of the testing was a little scary and at least one load cell exploded when a wave hit. It’s all in the archives.

Table 1 is not the result of conservative standard, or a large safety factor, it is the result of actual test results, duplicated by PS. There is, of course a safety factor of sorts built into working load calculations; the working load is about 3-10 times lower than the breaking strength of the material, but this is not a matter of caution, this is related to the fatigue limit of the specific material and construction. If the working load is exceed through enough cycles, the material fatigues and breaks at the working load.

There are also, obviously, a good few new anchors since then, Excel, Mantis, Rocna, and Viking, to name just a few. Weaknesses reveal themselves as they are tested and as sailors report in. For example, Rocna MKI has a documented tendency to collect sticky mud and then not reset. Will the Rocna MKII solve this? We don’t yet know. I guess we’ll have to get one and find out.

There are also newer books on anchoring, including “Rigging Modern Anchors,” 2018 by PS’s own Drew Frye.

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ClubSwan 43 First Look: A Spicy and Seriously Appealing Cruiser-Racer

• Toby Hodges
• September 11, 2024

The ClubSwan 43, a contemporary multi-mode cruiser-racer is one of 2024’s most exciting launches. Toby Hodges went to the Finnish yard for the first sea trials... sort of...

Product Overview

Clubswan 43, price as reviewed:.

What does a genuine cruiser-racer look like today? Spicy and seriously appealing if we take Swan’s latest model as an example. Granted, the dark brown water surrounding the ClubSwan 43 (CS43) during this first photoshoot doesn’t quite sell it, but believe me, the lines and details of Juan Kouyoumdjian’s latest rocketship really does get the heart rate spiking. This is one slippery weapon, potentially as stunning to sail as her fiery looks promise.

And it’s rare to find a new yacht that properly fulfills a dual-purpose role. Admittedly this design is skewed more towards racing, which will likely be the focus of most owners. But like its predecessor, the CS42, it features a fitted interior for occasional fair weather cruising – the modern shape of the new boat helps provide large volumes below decks (for a race boat) in a three-cabin layout.

Swan markets the ClubSwan 43 as ‘the perfect crossover’ because it targets three briefs: one-design events, handicap regatta ratings, and sports cruising. Some readers will remember it began life on the drawing board a couple of years ago as a 41-footer. But when the ORC band limits changed, Swan changed with it, extending this to a 43 as the Finnish boatbuilders wanted to be in the middle of Cat A for this international rating system.

Sea trials from the yard – but with race sails fitted and a hiking crew this time.

“ORC is getting bigger every year so this was our focus,” Nautor’s CEO Giovanni Pomati explained as we attended the launch and first sea trials from Swan’s Pietersaari yard.

Pomati described how Swan clients love to race in Nautor’s one-design circuit but also want to compete in high-profile regattas such as the Copa del Rey or Admiral’s Cup, and have the option of then cruising with their families. But he admits this is a mighty tall order: “As Juan K says – ‘you want a pig with five legs!’”

ClubSwan 43’s design versatility

“For me the way all these different aspects between performance, interior/cruising ability, and where the boat sits in terms of its performance to rating makes it a successful and beautiful sailboat,” muses Kouyoumdjian.

The visionary Argentinian naval architect has given the ClubSwan range a formidable boost since the CS50 launched in 2016. That was followed by the CS36 , the CS125 Skorpios (both of which have foils), the CS80 My Song, and now the CS28 and this CS43 both launching this season. He says the CS43’s hull is 500-700kg lighter yet 1.5m longer than its typical competitor.

Note the tidy deck layout and angles – top ergonomics

A novel feature, designed to suit those owners optimising their boat for ORC racing, is that the keel has a pocket in the top of the bulb to adjust the ballast without changing the whole keel (see page 84). This L-shaped keel is very thin at the leading edge, a high aspect shape to provide lift going upwind, and the design team calculates this will create much less leeway than a T-keel.

Another clever addition is to be found in the rig. The standard carbon mast is heavily raked with running backstays and a contemporary square-top mainsail for optimum performance in one-design racing. However, the masthead crane can be changed out to use a pinhead mainsail and fixed backstay, which is more practical when cruising. This fitting attaches with two pins, so you don’t need to de-rig the boat and can just hoist someone aloft.

“We spent a lot of time to simplify like this to swap from one configuration to another,” says head of sports activities Federico Michetti, who spearheaded the CS43 project.

Admittedly, I find the lines very cool indeed, with the flared aft sections, reverse sheer, chamfered coachroof and modern deck angles setting off an appealing, aggressive and sporty tone.

Article continues below…

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Good and bad surprises

Why have I harked on about the design and concept before describing what it’s like to sail? Because there’s an anti-climax looming… the first boat hadn’t quite been finished in time to give it a full test during our yard visit in June – we only managed a quick introductory sail, hence why this is only a ‘First Look’.

Ours were the very first sea trials of the first hull to launch. Although Swan had tried to finish as much of the interior as possible, it was certainly not complete (the aft cabins had no doors, the heads were unfinished and the sole boards were yet to be fitted). The bigger issue was that the sails had been held up in customs in Denmark, so our delivery sails comprised a pinhead main and a high-cut storm jib. Although I pleaded to borrow another yacht’s gennaker, the bowsprit still needed tackline fairleads and a bobstay fitting. So white Dacron sails only it was.

A joy to helm: the CS43 should slice to weather with narrow wetted surface and a keel which minimises leeway

Yet despite the equivalent of furnishing a carbon superbike with mountain bike wheels, we still had a delicious taster. We sailed in the tight confines of the channel to try and harness a confused wind as the light sea breeze began to stifle the offshores. This gave us a tricky yet fun mix of angles with winds gusting up from 8 to 17 knots.

And what a feeling this yacht gives you on the wheel – super direct and smooth! The Jefa steering linkage has a short run aft to a carbon stock and vinylester rudder, a deep, high aspect blade (to match the keel fin), which felt beautifully light and responsive.

Appetite whetter

The ClubSwan 43 proved noticeably quick to accelerate. We averaged 7+ knots upwind at 40° true in 12 knots (another half knot if you bear off 5-8°). Of course, the numbers are somewhat irrelevant with the sails we had and with no offwind options (indeed the polars suggest it should clock 8 knots in such conditions in one-design mode), but the feel and spark were very evident and pointed to genuinely potent capabilities.

Toby on the helm (with Dacron high cut jib).

While it has generous beam carried aft, look at the flare to the aft quarters: it leaves only a narrow wetted surface. It’s a slippery shape that should start planing when reaching in around 12 knots true wind. It will want a full hiking crew to establish how lethal the CS43 is upwind, but my impression is that intelligent use of crew weight, both lateral and fore and aft, could make a telling difference.

The wheel pedestals are twisted, which forces a double take at first, but proved effective as they’re at the ideal angle to grip when heeled and gain the helmsman space. The mainsheet trimmer has a comfortable space between the wheel and German-led mainsheet winch. Traveller control lines are led here to hand via camcleats on the central footbrace, although the endless line joining them can cause a tripping hazard.

The deck design and ergonomics are superb. The angles help to both give the CS43 a modern feel and work in a practical sense. For example, the chamfers on the coachroof make for a comfortable boat to sit up on the side deck or to walk on at heel, while a hiking crew will be grateful for the angled toerail join.

A compact galley but plenty of saloon and accomodation space in a smartly designed interior. Many of the panels are removable

Michetti is particularly happy with these ergonomics, especially those that help crew to feel safe at heel. The SeaDek foam decking in the cockpit is comfortable and grippy underfoot, the moulded-in non-slip decks effective, and there is a sturdy central longitudinal footbrace for crewmembers in the cockpit.

The winch layout is also well considered, particularly for racing. The coachroof winches have free spinning bases for cross-sheeting, and the runner winches are neatly set into the decks, again on an angle. The runners blocks are quite far inboard on the transom, but Michetti explains that the boom will never be eased too far with the apparent wind angles it will race at. The jib sheets lead through transverse tracks to give a very tight sheeting angle, while the running rigging runs through slanted grooves in the coachroof.

A lot of experience and forethought has gone into these details.

Keel pocket allows simple change of ballast weight

More clues to its raceboat focus include having the main and jib halyards on locks, which helps reduce mast compression, and the numbered gauges on the foam decking for the traveller. Making full use of the reverse sheer, the foredeck ramps down into a well to make the forestay attachment as low as possible.

The spacious cockpit has low backrests and short benches. In cruising mode there’s the option for a removable table and box seats to join the cockpit benches. A windlass can be fitted in the anchor locker and the bowsprit can be swapped with two bolts for a shorter version that includes twin anchor rollers.

Reverse sheer and flared aft quarters give an aggressive look

Clean styling

Below decks has a light, open feel, with good volumes and large aft cabins. Lucio Micheletti has done a good job with the minimalist interior styling and it is more cruising yacht than stripped-back raceboat. That said, the yard has gone to painstaking lengths to ensure it can be stripped without ruining the boat. Cork panels are used on the hull sides, for example, for noise insulation but they’re Velcroed-on so can be removed for racing.

There will be an option to close off the forward berth

In fact, pretty much anything that can be removable is, including the saloon table, the aft bed boards, the water tank bladders, even the headlining. This amounts to over 200kg in furniture and fittings.

The concept of stripping a luxury yacht may seem baffling but Michetti explains how competitive boats racing in ORC today all do this and are ‘bastardised’ with fake interiors and furniture. Hence it makes sense to design-in as many removable fittings as possible. For Swan’s one-design racing programme, yachts will have to have their interiors fitted. So this is a truly transformable model.

It’s also a practical wash down, wipe clean type interior, so should be able to handle spinnaker drops without ruining the finish. A string drop system can be fitted, led back to a block in the aft cabin so you can suck a kite in through the forward hatch. All deck hatch drainage is outside via neat wells on deck and it’s a deck-stepped mast, so the interior should stay dry.

Photo: Eva-Stina Kjellman

The hatch on the forward watertight bulkhead opens to access the forepeak and chain locker. There will be an option to close off the forward berth with sliding doors, and Swan was still deciding whether to add headlinings in the aft cabins (which will also have fabric wardrobes). The CS43 is built using vacuum-infused vinylester with carbon reinforcements, a high modulus carbon Axxon rig, and a carbon bowsprit.

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The ClubSwan 43 costs a whopping €820,000, yet the first three were signed before this first hull launched (the larger sister CS50 is €600,000 more and costs more to run, yet has sold nearly 30). So while this just might be one of the coolest new yachts I’ve sailed, for that exotic price it needs to be near perfect. And I can’t tell you if it is... yet. I can only say it’s got huge potential. Its pricing will render it a product for the lucky few, but that’s buying into the exclusive, unrivalled world of Swan’s regatta and one-design circuits. The Nautor badge will also carry a lot of weight in terms of aftersales value. Our sail was a mere amuse-bouche, when I’d have loved to try the full taster menu. While it was frustrating for Swan and us not to be able to sail it to its potential, I can say that there are very, very few yachts that feel this good on the wheel without even being set up properly! I eagerly await a re-run.