steel sailboat building

In General:  The advantages of steel can be summarized as follows...

• Steel is more rugged than aluminum, being tougher and much more abrasion resistant.
• The various HSLA steels are even more so.
• Welds in steel are 100% the strength of the surrounding plates, whether mild steel or Corten.
•  Steel is more "noble" than aluminum, making steel less prone to electrolysis and allowing a steel hull to use regular copper bottom paint.  

Aluminum is light, strong, corrosion resistant, non sparking, conducts electricity and heat well, and is readily weldable by MIG or TIG processes. In terms of ease of construction, aluminum is excellent. It can be cut with carbide tipped power tools, dressed with a router, filed and shaped easily, and so forth. Aluminum is light, clean, and easy to work with.

Aluminum is therefore faster to fabricate than steel and welding aluminum is a very quick process, both resulting in a labor savings. In terms of thickness, 3/16 inch (around 5 mm) is generally considered the minimum plate thickness for MIG welding. However, if pulsed MIG welding is available then 5/32 inch plating (4 mm) can be used, particularly for deck and house structures.

Pound for pound, the cost of aluminum is much greater than steel. In 2012, aluminum in the 5000 and 6000 series costs between USD $3.00 and $3.50 per pound and pre-primed steel plate costs round USD $0.80 per pound.

Since the weight of an aluminum structure will be some 30% lighter than an equivalent steel structure, considering only the cost of materials an aluminum structure will still be roughly 2.5 times that of the equivalent steel structure. That aluminum is faster to fabricate and weld does help to reduce that ratio after labor costs are factored in.

Since aluminum is much lighter than steel, there is the option to use much greater plate thickness within a given weight budget, which means that not only can the overall strength be greater than with steel, but the distortion levels can be much more easily managed. In so doing, of course the cost will be proportionally greater.

Aluminum alloys for use on boats are generally limited to the 5000 and the 6000 series. These two alloy groups are very corrosion resistant in the marine environment due to the formation of a tough aluminum oxide. These alloys are subject to pitting, but the pitting action slows as the oxide film thickens with age.

Aluminum alloys are subject to crevice corrosion, since they depend on the presence of Oxygen to repair themselves. What this means is that wherever aluminum is in contact with anything, even another piece of aluminum or zinc, it must be cleaned, properly prepared, and painted with an adhesive waterproof paint like epoxy, then ideally also protected with a waterproof adhesive bedding such as Sikaflex or 3M-5200 to prevent water from entering the interface.

Paint preparation is critical. Thorough cleaning, and abrasive grit blasting will provide the best surface for adhesion of paint or bedding. Alternately, a thorough cleaning and then grinding with a coarse 16 grit disk will provide enough tooth for the paint to stay put.

Aluminum is anodic to all other commonly used metals except zinc and magnesium, and must be electrically isolated from other metals. A plastic wafer alone as an isolator is not sufficient. Salt water must be prevented from entering the crevice, which means that properly applied epoxy paint, adhesive bedding, and a non-conductive isolator should all be used together.

In aluminum, welds done in the shop are at best around 70% of the strength of the plate (in the 5000 series). Usually, one will compensate for the reduced strength in the heat affected zone either by providing a backup strip at any plate joint, and welding the plate joint thoroughly on both sides, or by providing additional longitudinal members to span any butt welds in the plating.

Ideally, plating butts will be located in the position of least stress. For most general plating, this is ordinarily at one quarter of the span between frames. In other words, with proper engineering and design, the reduced strength of aluminum in the heat affected zone is a non issue.

Aluminum hulls require special bottom paint. Organo-tin based anti-fouling paints can no longer be used as bottom paint except in such diluted formulations as to be nearly useless. Currently, the best antifouling paint for aluminum hulls is called "No-Foul EP-21" made by the E-Paint Company (800-258-5998). 

No-Foul EP-21 is an update of the original "No-Foul ZDF" both of which make use of a controlled release of hydrogen peroxide to prevent fouling. Practical Sailor Magazine did a controlled study of a large variety of anti-fouling paints over several years, during which they discovered that No-Foul ZDF outperformed ALL other antifouling paints during the first year of immersion in all waters. They also discovered that No-Foul ZDF performs significantly less well than the other AF paints during the second year... The conclusion? Refreshing the No-Foul coatings annually will result in a top performing system, as well as frequent inspection intervals for the hull.

The new formulation for No-Foul EP-21 is considered to be an improvement due to the addition of an environmentally preferred booster biocide that helps control slime and grass. Another improvement is the change from a vinyl binder to an epoxy. This makes the paint harder, and allows it to be applied over a wider variety of existing paints.

Other non-copper based anti-fouling technologies continue to appear, and they all should be considered provided that there are no metals present that are more noble than aluminum.

A big savings with aluminum is that it is ordinarily not necessary to sand blast or paint the inside of the hull. Generally, due to its very good conductivity one must insulate an aluminum hull extremely well. The most common insulation is blown-in polyurethane foam, although our present recommendations have drifted away from those materials.  In combination with a light primer or mastic, one can make an excellent case for the use of cut-sheet foams, such as Ensolite and Neoprene, where it is desirable to lightly blast the aluminum, and provide an epoxy primer or other barrier coating prior to insulating.

Various coatings for the interior of an aluminum boat are available which provide sound deadening and insulation. Two products in particular are Mascoat DTM for insulation, and Mascoat MSC for sound attenuation. Our preference is to use Mascoat MSC at 20 mils thickness throughout, with an additional 60 mils thickness in the engine room for sound attenuation. Then to apply Mascoat DTM at 120 mils thickness throughout over that as insulation. With this system it is not necessary to pre-paint the surfaces, nor to use additional insulation, although for colder waters a cut sheet foam can be added.

On the exterior , except on the bottom or locally where things are mounted onto the hull surface, it is completely unnecessary to paint an aluminum hull. This represents such a large cost savings that if the exterior is left unpainted, building in aluminum will often cost LESS than building the same vessel in steel. More or less, the cost difference amounts to the cost of painting the exterior of the aluminum hull...

We have already seen that a point in favor of aluminum is that a much lighter weight boat can be built than would be possible in steel. This is a performance advantage as well as a cost advantage. Not only will the lighter displacement boat be relatively less costly to build, it will also be much less costly to push through the water. Lighter weight means less horsepower is needed for the same speed, which means less fuel will be used to achieve the same range, both of which augment the overall savings in weight.

One might argue that with a lighter boat there will possibly be less room below, the lighter boat being narrower on the waterline, and possibly less deep. With proper planning, this need not be an issue.

On the plus side, even if an aluminum boat costs slightly more than a steel vessel to build (if painted), an aluminum boat will have a much higher re-sale value than a steel boat.  

Stainless Steel

I am occasionally asked, "What about building a boat in Stainless?"

A structure built in stainless will weigh approximately the same as one built in mild steel, although on occasion one may be able to make use of somewhat lighter scantlings due to the somewhat higher strength of stainless. There are several major drawbacks to the use of stainless, not the least of which is cost. Stainless of the proper alloy will cost nearly six times the price of mild steel!

Even if it were not so costly, stainless has numerous other problems:

• Stainless is quite difficult to cut, except by plasma arc.
• Stainless work hardens when being formed and can become locally tempered such as when being drilled.
• Stainless deforms rather extremely when heated either for cutting or for welding, meaning distortion will be very difficult to control.
• Stainless, even in the low carbon types, is subject to carbide precipitation in the heat affected zone adjacent to the weld, creating an area that is much more susceptible to corrosion as well as to cracking.
• Stainless is subject to crevice corrosion when starved of oxygen. This can be prevented only by sandblasting and painting the surfaces wherever an object is to be mounted onto the stainless surface. The same applies to the back side of any stainless fittings which are applied to hull surfaces.

If the above issues with stainless can be properly accounted for in the design and building of the vessel, then stainless can be a viable hull construction media.

Type 316-L stainless is generally the preferred alloy. Type 316-L is a low carbon alloy, and is used in welded structures to help prevent carbide precipitation in the heat affected zone. When available, the use of type 321 or 347 stainless will be of considerable benefit in preventing carbide precipitation, since there are other alloying elements (tantalum, columbium, or titanium) which help keep the carbides in solution during welding.

In my view, as a builder the main battle one will face is the rather extreme distortion levels when fabricating with stainless. Stainless conducts heat very slowly and has a high expansion rate. Both of these characteristics conspire against maintaining fairness during weld-up. Short arc MIG welding will be an imperative. In fact Pulsed MIG will probably be desired in order to sustain the right arc characteristics while lowering the overall heat input.  

Copper Nickel

Another material which should be considered along with steel, stainless, and aluminum is Copper Nickel. One can ignore paint altogether with CuNi, inside, outside, top and bottom. Copper Nickel acts as its own natural antifouling. In fact, bare Copper Nickel plate performs better than antifouling paint..!  Being a mirror-smooth surface, any minor fouling is very easily removed.  

Besides not having to paint CuNi and its natural resistance to fouling, CuNi is also easy to cut and weld, it has relatively high heat conductivity, it is extremely ductile, and it is therefore very favorable with regard to distortion while welding.

There are two alloys of Copper Nickel which are the most common: 70/30 CuNi, and 90/10 CuNi. The numbers represent the relative amounts of Copper and Nickel in the alloy. Having a greater amount of Nickel, 70/30 CuNi is the stronger of the two and also the more expensive of the two.

In the US as of February 2007, 90/10 CuNi was priced around USD $8.50 per pound, and 70/30 CuNi around USD $13.00 per pound, both based on a minimum order of greater than 15,000 pounds. In other words, roughly ten to fifteen times the cost of the same structure in steel. I have not investigated current (2015) prices for CuNi, but we can be certain they are higher (i.e. the value of the dollar less) thus the ratio of costs vs. steel much higher.

The issues with CuNi are not only those of cost, but also of strength. For example, the ultimate strength of 90/10 Cu Ni is about one third less than that of mild steel, and the yield strength about half that of mild steel. In practice, this means that a hull built of Cu Ni will have to use heavier scantlings. CuNi, being slightly heavier than steel per cubic foot, the CuNi hull structure will end up being slightly heavier than an equivalent steel hull structure.

In most materials, we usually "design to yield." This means that the ultimate failure strength of a material is more or less ignored, and the yield strength is instead used as the guide for determining scantlings. For example, if we were to desire a 90/10 CuNi structure having the same yield strength as there would be with a similar steel structure, we would be tempted to actually double the scantlings. Naturally this would result in quite a huge weight penalty, BUT....

In practice, a CuNi structure need not be taken to this extreme. Using the ABS rules to calculate the scantlings, an all 90/10 Cu Ni structure will have around 25% more weight than a similar structure in steel. It is best to use the same plate thickness as with steel, and compensate for the lower yield strength by spacing the longitudinals more closely.

It is unlikely that one would choose CuNi for the internal framing, primarily because of its cost, its relatively low strength, and the relatively much larger scantlings and weight that would result. In other words, there is no reason not to make use of CuNi for the hull skin in order to take full advantage of its benefits, but it is possible to use a stronger and less expensive material for all the internal framing.

What is the best choice for the internal framing...? Probably type 316-L Stainless . As long as the various attributes of stainless are kept in mind, this is a combination having considerable merit. Here is why...

• Stainless can be readily welded.
• One can easily make a weld between stainless and Cu Ni.
• Scantlings of stainless internal framing would not need to be increased, in fact they would be less than those required for mild steel.
• The weight of stainless internal framing would therefore be roughly 10% less than with mild steel, or approximately equal to the weight of a Corten steel internal structure.
• 316-L Stainless costs (February 2007) around USD $4.50 per pound based on a minimum order of 10,000 pounds. Therefore the cost of stainless is roughly half that of 90/10 Cu Ni, and about one third the cost of 70/30 Cu Ni... Combined with there being much lighter scantlings, the overall cost factor would be reduced considerably.

With this strategy the weight can be kept to roughly the same as an equivalent mild steel structure.

And to further reduce costs, NC plasma cutting or water jet cutting can be used for all plates and internal structure.

Are there still more options to reduce costs...?

Fiberglass...! Compared to the weight and cost of an all CuNi / Stainless structure, both cost and weight can be reduced by using fiberglass for the deck and house structures, or possibly just for the house structures. A cold moulded wooden deck and / or superstructure is also a possibility.

Even with GRP or composite wood for the house structures, it probably would be most advantageous to plate the deck with Cu Ni. In so doing, one could then use CuNi for all the various deck fittings: stanchions, cleats, bitts, etc. Pipe fittings are readily available in either alloy of CuNi, so this would be a natural. The resulting integral strength and lack of maintenance would be an outstanding plus.

While the expense of Copper Nickel may seem completely crazy to some, given a bit of extra room in the budget and the will to be completely free from ALL requirements for painting, this is the bee's knees....! The savings realized by not having to paint the entire vessel inside and out - EVER - will go quite a long way toward easing the cost differential.  

Per existing research on a number of commercial vessels, their operators have shown a very favorable economic benefit over the life of a Copper Nickel vessel. This is due to there being a much longer vessel life; far less cost for dry docking; zero painting costs; no maintenance; no corrosion; few if any repairs; etc. 

Per the Copper Alliance, and organization that has studied the economic benefits of CuNi for boat hulls, the cost saved on a commercial vessel's maintenance routine pays for the added cost of the CuNi structure within 5 to 7 years.  And... if the resale value of a CuNi boat is considered, the ROI is further enhanced.  

Monel 400 is an alloy of around 65% Nickel, around 30% Copper, plus small percentages of Manganese, Iron and Silicon. Monel is extremely ductile, and therefore will take considerable punishment without failure. Monel is easily welded, and Monel has extraordinary resistance to corrosion, even at elevated temperatures.

Monel is much stronger than mild steel, stronger than Corten, and stronger than the usual varieties of stainless. As a result of this greater strength, Monel could be used for the entire structure. As compared to a similar steel structure, Monel will therefore permit lighter scantlings and would allow one to create a lighter overall structure than with steel. Alternately one could use the same scantlings in order to achieve a vessel having greater strength .

To reduce costs even more, one could use the same strategy as with CuNi, i.e. use Monel just for the plating, and then use 316-L Stainless for the internal framing. This is probably the sweet spot, offering light scantlings and extraordinary freedom from on-going maintenance costs.

If cost is not an important factor, an all Monel structure may well be the ultimate boatbuilding material of all time.  

Titanium has been used in the aircraft and aerospace industries for quite a long time. As well, several Russian submarines have been built using Titanium. With very high strength alloys available, extreme nobility on the galvanic scale, virtual immunity to corrosion in sea water and in the atmosphere, and about half the weight of steel, there are only a few considerations that stand in the way of Titanium being the "perfect" hull material, not least of which is cost .

Cost :  Due to the higher cost of titanium as compared to, say stainless or aluminum, the choice in favor of using titanium for a fabricated structure such as a boat must be made on the basis of the resulting structure having lower operating costs, longer life, or reduced maintenance in order to justify its use.  In other words, titanium will only be chosen if it is perceived to have a lower total life cycle cost.

Plastic Range: Among the Commercially Pure (CP) grades of Titanium, and with most Titanium Alloys there is little spread between the yield point (the point at which a material is deformed so far that it will not return to its original shape when released) and the ultimate failure point. Thus most grades and alloys of titanium have a very limited plastic range. 

Elongation :  The percentage of elongation before failure is on par with mild steel, and is roughly twice that of aluminum.  Thus most grades of CP Titanium and most alloys are readily formable, and have a fatigue resistance on par with steel.

Stiffness: Another characteristic is "stiffness" which is expressed by the modulus of elasticity. For steel, it is 29 million psi. For aluminum, it is 10 million psi. For Titanium, it is 15 million psi. This indicates behavior that is somewhat closer to aluminum in terms of material rigidity.  In other words, Titanium will flex about twice as much as steel, but about 50% less than aluminum. Interestingly, Ti has about the same modulus of elasticity (stiffness) as Silicon Bronze, but Ti has less stiffness than copper nickel, which has an elastic modulus of 22 million psi.

Welding: Yet another consideration is the welding of Titanium, which is somewhat of a mixed bag due to several of the material's properties.

The melting point of Titanium (3,042 deg F) is well above that of steel (2,500 deg F) and about three times that of aluminum (1,135 deg F). Titanium forms a very tough oxide immediately on exposure to the air, and is highly reactive with nitrogen, therefore welding must be done only after thorough cleaning of the weld zone, and the welding process must assure a complete inert gas shroud of the weld zone both on the side being welded and on the opposite side. The weld zone must then continue to be shielded until the metal cools below 800 degrees.

These factors may provide considerable difficulty, but they are surmountable by thorough attention to detail, good technique, and aggressive measures to assure post-weld shielding. These factors however dramatically increase fabrication costs over that of other metals.

Among the other material properties that contribute to ease of fabrication of any metal are its heat conductivity, and its thermal expansion rate. Aluminum expands twice as much as steel per degree of temperature change, and is three times as conductive thermally. The thermal conductivity of aluminum is a big help, but the expansion makes trouble in terms of distortion. As a benefit though, an equivalent aluminum structure will have greater thickness and thus locally greater yield strength, so the score is more or less even between steel and aluminum, with aluminum having a slightly greater tendency toward distortion while welding.

With Titanium, this latter consideration will be the overriding factor in determining the minimum practical thickness for plating. Thermal conductivity is given as 4.5 BTU / Sq Ft / Hr/ Deg F / Ft for Titanium. For steel, it is 31, for aluminum it is 90. Thermal expansion is given as .0000039 in / in / deg F for Titanium, about 50% the expansion of steel and about 30% that of aluminum. These figures seem to indicate that the material would be fairly stable while welding, but that welds would take a much longer time to cool as compared to steel and vastly longer compared to aluminum. In other words, the heat would not dissipate - it would remain concentrated in the weld zone.

Industry consensus is that Titanium is slightly more prone to distortion due to welding as compared to steel. Considering these factors along with its much higher strength, as a very rough guess a thickness of around 3/32" may possibly be the minimum practical thickness for a welded structure in Titanium, with 1/8 inch thickness being a more likely lower practical hull thickness limit. As a comparison, the minimum thickness for other materials (mainly due to welding ease and distortion issues) is 10 gauge for mild steel (.1345"), and 5/32" for aluminum, although 3/16 inch thickness is a more practical lower limit for aluminum boat structures.

Corrosion:  Titanium is extremely corrosion resistant due to the immediate formation of a tenacious Titanium Dioxide on exposure to air or oxygenated water.  This means it is practically immune to corrosion in sea water, but there is one catch...  Like aluminum, Ti depends on free access to oxygen, therefore it can be susceptible to crevice corrosion wherever it is deprived of free access to oxygen and cannot form a protective oxide.  Crevice corrosion can be prevented in the same way as is done with aluminum, and some grades of Ti are more resistant to crevice corrosion than others. 

Titanium Grades:  Titanium Grade 2 is the most commonly available Commercially Pure (CP) grade, having 40k psi yield, 50k psi ultimate strength and a 20% elongation before failure.  It is highly formable and weldable, and is available in most shapes, i.e. plate, bar, pipe, etc.  These are highly favorable properties for hull construction.

Titanium Grade 12 includes Mo and Ni for a higher strength alloy having superior resistance to crevice corrosion, with 50k psi yield, 70k psi ultimate strength and an 18% elongation before failure. The 20k psi spread between yield and failure is a highly favorable property.  It is a highly formable grade, readily weldable and is available in a variety of plate sizes, pipes and bar shapes.  All of these are highly favorable properties for hull construction, making Grade 12 one of the best choices to be favored for boat structure.

Titanium Alloys :  An interesting Titanium alloy is the experimental Alloy 5111 (5% Al; 1% SN; 1% Zr; 1% V; 0.8% MO) with 110k psi yield, 125k psi ultimate strength and a 15% elongation before failure.  Described as "a near alpha alloy having excellent weldability, seawater stress corrosion cracking resistance and high dynamic toughness." It has a high elongation before failure, a "medium" overall strength of about twice that of mild steel, and has a slightly greater spread between its yield point and failure point than the "high" strength Titanium alloys. It is favored for submarines, but its high strength is not especially necessary for boats or large yachts.

Another Titanium alloy is the proprietary ATI Alloy 425 being made by Allegheny Technologies Inc. (ATI) who are targeting this alloy at ship structures.  With 132k psi yield, 152k psi ultimate strength and a 13% elongation before failure, its use is likely to be relegated to applications requiring very high strength.  Its low elongation before failure is an indication that it could be prone to cracking, and it is unlikely to be a candidate for typical boat structures (i.e. non-military usages).

Light weight, high strength, immunity from corrosion in sea water... sounds ideal.  Although it is obvious that Titanium would be an outstanding hull material, it requires extreme care during construction, thus labor costs would be high. If those factors can be mitigated or if cost is not an issue, then Titanium may possibly be the "ultimate" boat hull material...! 

Despite its immunity from corrosion in sea water, a titanium hull will still require paint below the WL in order to prevent fouling.  

Relative Cost

If we ignore the cost of the hull materials themselves for a moment and consider what may impact costs in other ways, we can observe the following... Vessel construction costs will vary more or less directly with displacement, assuming a given material, and a given level of finish and complexity in the design. Since displacement varies as the cube of the dimensions, we can see that the costs for a vessel will increase exponentially with size.

With regard to the complexity of a vessel the same can be said. Complexity in whatever form affects cost perhaps to the fourth power...! Assuming a given budget, a simpler boat can just plain afford to be made larger!

Estimating actual construction costs is relatively straightforward but it does require a detailed look at every aspect of the process. A reliable construction cost estimate must consider the hull material, degree of finish, complexity of structure, building method, whether the structure is computer cut, the complexity of systems specified and the degree of high finish for the joinery. This is only possible with a well articulated vessel specification, a complete equipment list, and a detailed set of drawings that show the layout and the structure.

Assuming we are considering vessels of equal size and complexity, when all is said and done, and if painted to the same standard on the exterior, an aluminum vessel may possibly be around 10% more expensive to build than the same vessel in steel. If the aluminum vessel is left unpainted on the exterior except where necessary, many yards can build for less in aluminum than in steel, or might quote the two materials at parity. This has been verified by several yards via actual construction estimates for boats of my design.

As compared to a steel boat, maintenance will be less costly on an aluminum boat and resale value will be higher. Taken as a whole, any increased hull construction costs for an aluminum hull will shrink into insignificance in the context of the entire life of the boat.

Of course a Copper Nickel, Monel, or Titanium vessel will be considerably more costly than one built in steel or aluminum, however in terms of longevity a boat built with any of those metals will provide the ultimate as a family heirloom...

For more information, please review our comprehensive web article on Boat Building Costs .  

The materials of construction need not dictate the aesthetics of a vessel. Much can be done to make a metal boat friendly to the eye. On the interior for example with the use of a full ceiling and well done interior woodwork, there will generally be no hint that you're even aboard a metal boat.

On the exterior, if metal decks are preferred for their incredible strength and complete water tightness, one can make the various areas more inviting by devious means. An example would be the use of removable wood gratings in way of the cockpit. Fitted boat cushions made of a closed cell foam work equally well to cover the metal deck in the cockpit area, and some will prefer to laminate a cork or teak deck over a painted and protected metal deck.

Many metal boats we encounter seem "industrial" in their appearance. In my view, classic and traditional lines, if attended to faithfully, will completely eliminate that industrial look. With a bit of classic gracefulness introduced by the designer, a metal boat will be every bit as beautiful as a boat of any other material.

My design work often tends to be drawn toward fairly traditional aesthetics, which some may regard as being somewhat old fashioned. What I have done in these designs however, is to take maximum advantage of up to date materials and current knowledge of hydrodynamics, while retaining the look and feel of a classic boat. In so doing, my overall preference is to provide a boat that is very simple, functional, and rugged, while carrying forth a bit of traditional elegance.

Everyone's needs are different of course. When considering a new design, nearly anything is possible. The eventual form given to any vessel will always be the result of the wishes of the owner, the accommodations the boat must contain, the purpose for which it is intended, and the budget that is available for its creation.  

Regarding Hull Form

Efficiency and performance are high on the list amongst the myriad considerations that go into shaping a hull. With metal hulls, there is always a question of whether a vessel should be rounded or "chine" shaped.

Assuming two vessels are of equally good design, whether the hull is rounded or single chine will not have much impact on their performance, i.e. they will be more or less equivalent. Here are a few considerations that may be of some benefit when considering the choice between rounded or single chine hull shapes...

• If one were to take a single chine hull form and simply introduce a fairly large radius instead of the chine, the newly rounded vessel's wetted surface would be less; displacement would be less; and initial stability would be less, and the comparison somewhat skewed.

In terms of interior hull space, a chine hull form will often be slightly less wide at sole level and slightly wider at the waterline level, so possibly a bit less room to walk around but larger seats and berths. The single chine hull form will have slightly greater initial stability (greater shape stability), and will therefore have slightly greater sail carrying ability at typical heel angles under sail. The single chine hull form will have greater roll dampening (faster roll decay). The rounded hull form will have a slightly more gentle rolling motion. The chine hull form will have slightly greater wetted surface. This implies that the rounded hull form will have slightly less resistance at slow speeds where wetted surface dominates the total resistance. The chine hull can be designed to equalize or reverse that resistance equation at higher speeds due to wake differences resulting from the chine hull being able to have a slightly flatter run.

Aside from these generalities, relative performance would be difficult to pre-judge. We can however observe the following:

• Given the same sail area, when sailing at slow speeds in light airs, one might see the rounded hull form show a slight advantage due to having slightly less wetted surface.
• When sailing fast , a chine hull form will be more likely to exhibit greater dynamic lift, especially when surfing.
• Especially in heavier air, one might even see a slight advantage to windward with the chine hull.

Given that those observations do not reveal any special deficiency with regard to a single chine hull we can additionally observe the following:

• When creating a new design, wetted surface is one of the determining factors of sail area.
• Having slightly greater wetted surface, a single chine hull should therefore be given slightly more sail area, so its slightly greater wetted surface will become a non-issue .
• If the chine hull is given slightly more sail area, it will therefore be subject to a slightly greater heeling force.
• However the single chine hull form will have inherently greater "shape stability" in order to resist that heeling force.
• One can therefore expect the sail carrying ability to be essentially equalized .
• Therefore with good design, there is no performance hit at low speeds, and there is ordinarily a performance gain at high sailing speeds.

Among the above considerations, the one factor that seems to favor the rounded hull form most definitively is that of having a slightly more gentle rolling motion. In other words, a slower "deceleration" at the end of each roll. On the other hand, rolling motions will decay more quickly with a single chine hull form. Even these factors can be more or less equivocated via correct hull design.  

Rounded Metal Hulls

As we have seen, one cannot claim that a rounded hull form is inherently better in terms of performance without heavily qualifying that claim. The primary trade-offs between a rounded hull and a chine type of hull form for metal boats therefore turn out to be purely a matter of cost and personal preference.

I have designed several rounded hulls for construction in metal. These are true round bottom boats designed with the greatest ease of plating in mind. Some are double ended, some have a transom stern, others have a fantail stern, and still others have a canoe stern where stem nicely balances the shape of the stern.

Having an easily plated shape, any of these rounded hull forms can be economically built. These rounded shapes require plate rolling only in a few places and are elsewhere designed to receive flat sheets without fuss. These are not "radius chine" boats. They are simply easily plated rounded hulls.

With any of these types, the keel is attached as an appendage, there being no need when using metal to create a large rounded garboard area for the sake of strength, as would be the case with a glass or a wooden hull. This achieves both a more economically built structure, as well as a better defined keel for windward performance under sail and better tracking under sail or power.

Plating on these rounded hull types is arranged in strips having a limited width running lengthwise along the hull. Usually the topsides can be one sheet wide, the rounded bilge one sheet, and the bottom one larger sheet width.

Examples of these rounded hull types among my designs are Jasmine , Lucille 42 , Lucille 50 , Benrogin , Greybeard , Fantom and among my prototypes such as Josephine and Caribe . While these might be imagined to have a "radius" chine shape, they are in fact true rounded hull forms. In other words, the turn of the bilge is not a radius but is instead a free form curve between bottom and topsides. Both bottom and topsides have gently rounded sectional contours that blend nicely into the curve at the turn of the bilge. With the exception of the turn of the bilge, all of the plating on these designs is developable and will readily bend into place making these vessels just as easily constructed as any radius chine shape. In other words, 85% to 90% of the vessel is able to be plated using flat metal sheets without any pre-forming.

What's the difference between this and a radius chine...?

In my view the visual difference between radius chine and rounded hull forms is very apparent, strongly favoring the rounded shape, yet the labor required and the consequent cost is the same. Due to the gentle transverse curvature given to the surfaces above and below the turn of the bilge, the appearance is a vast improvement over the relatively crude radius chine shape.  

Radius Chine Metal Hulls

Looking around at typically available metal boat designs we quickly observe that the "radius chine" construction method has become fairly common. Here, a simple radius is used to intersect the "flat" side and bottom plates. Although the radius chine shape takes fairly good advantage of flat plate for most of the hull surface, it is not a more economical construction method than the easily plated rounded hull shapes described above - nor is it nearly as attractive.

One reason for the popularity of the radius chine is that nearly any single chine boat can be converted to a radius chine. This is often done without any re-design of the hull by simply choosing an appropriate radius, and using rolled plate for that part of the hull. Radius chine construction does add quite a few extra hours to the hull fabrication as compared to single chine hull forms.

In my experience there is no benefit whatever to employ a radius chine shape over that of an easily plated rounded hull form. The radius chine hull will always be easily recognized for what it is... a radius chine shape rather than a true rounded hull. By contrast a gently rounded hull form will be vastly more appealing visually.  

Chine Hull Forms

A single chine can be quite appealing, especially when used with a more classic / traditional style. A few single chine examples among my sailing designs are the 36' Grace , the 42' Zephyr , the 44' Redpath , the 56' Shiraz , along with a number of others such as the prototype designs for a 51' Skipjack , or the 55' Wylde Pathaway .

As supplied, metal plate is always flat . When building a boat using flat sheet material, it makes the most sense to think in terms of sheet material and how one may optimize a hull design to suit the materials, without incurring extra labor. I am attracted to the single chine shape for metal boats. In my view the single chine shape represents the most "honest" use of the material.

In this regard I feel traditional styling has much to offer, keeping in mind of course the goals of seakindliness, safety, and of excellent performance. As with many traditional types, there is certainly no aesthetic penalty for using a single chine, as is evidenced by reviewing any of the above mentioned sailing craft.

Assuming that by design each type has been optimized with regard to sail area and hull form, it becomes obvious that the typically pandered differences between the performance of a rounded hull form versus that of a single chine, unless heavily qualified, are simply unsubstantiated.

In fact, since costs are significantly less using single chine construction, one can make an excellent case in terms of better performance via the use of a simpler hull form....!

How is this possible...?

With metal boats, labor is by far the largest factor in hull construction, and as we have observed greater complexity pushes the hours and the cost of labor up exponentially. Therefore dollar for dollar, a single chine vessel can be made longer within the same budget .

This means that in terms of the vessel's "performance per dollar" the single chine vessel can actually offer better performance (i.e. greater speed) than a similar rounded hull form...!

By comparison, a multiple chine hull form offers practically no advantage whatever. A multiple chine hull will require nearly as much labor as a radius chine hull. The only savings will be eliminating the cost of rolling the plates for the actual radius. In my view, multiple-chine shapes are very problematic visually, and they are much more difficult to "line off" nicely. There will be just as much welding as with a radius chine shape, and in general a multiple-chine hull will be considerably less easy to keep fair during construction.

If you look at the designs on this web site, you'll soon discover that there are no examples of multiple-chine vessels among my designs, whether power or sail....

Basically, multiple chine shapes cost more to build, and in my view multiple chine shapes are not as visually appealing. As a result the preference has always been to consider the available budget and to make a graceful single chine boat longer for the same cost, and realize some real speed, comfort and accommodation benefits...!

In the end what ultimately defines a good boat is not whether she is one type or another, but whether the boat satisfies the wishes of the owner.  

Keel Configuration

The keel of any vessel, sail or power, will be asked to serve many functions. The keel creates a structural backbone for the hull, it provides a platform for grounding, and it will contain the ballast.

In a metal boat, the keel is not just "along for the ride." In a metal vessel the keel can contain much of the tankage including a meaningful sea water sump, and the keel can serve as the coolant tank for the engine essentially acting as the "radiator." It is usually convenient to allow at least one generous tank in the keel as a holding tank.

A metal hull can take advantage of twin or bilge keels without any trouble. It is an easy matter to provide the required structural support within the framing. Often, bilge keels can be integrated with the tanks, allowing excellent structural support.

An added advantage with both sail and power boats is that the bilge keels can be used as ballast compartments. Having spread the ballast laterally becomes a big advantage in terms of the vessel's roll radius, providing an inertial dampening to the vessel's roll behavior.

Bilge keels can also be designed to permit a good degree of sailing performance to a power vessel which has been set up with a "get-home" sailing rig. Aboard a power vessel, when faced with the choices involved with having an extra diesel engine as a "get-home" device in the event of failure of the main engine, I would very seriously consider the combination of bilge keels and a modest sailing rig.

Bilge keels will usually make use of a NACA foil section optimized for high lift / low drag / low stall. With metal, this is easily accomplished.  

Integral Tanks

Integral fuel and water tanks are always to be preferred on a metal boat. Integral tanks provide a much more efficient use of space. Integral tanks provide added reinforcement for the hull and ease of access to the inside of the hull. Integral tanks are very simple to arrange for during the design of the vessel. If the tank covers are planned correctly there will be excellent access during construction as well as in the future for maintenance.

The one exception to this generality is that polyethylene tanks may be preferred for black or grey water storage, since they can be readily cleaned. This is especially so in aluminum vessels, due mainly to the extremely corrosive nature of sewage. In steel vessels, when properly painted there will always be an adequate barrier, and integral black and grey water tanks again become viable. For aluminum construction, if integral holding tanks are desired the tanks must be protected on the inside as though they were made of mild steel... and the coatings must not be breached...!

Please see my article on Integral Tanks for more on this question...  

Scantling Calcs

Hull size, materials of construction, and the location of the specific region of the structure in question will each have a bearing on the results of the scantling calcs. The method of calculating the hull structural scantlings is usually processed as follows, assuming first that the vessel data is already given (hull length, beam, depth, freeboard, weight, etc.).

Select plate material according to owner preference, available budget, and desired strength or other material properties Select preferred plate thickness according to availability, suited to vessel size and displacement Calculate local longitudinal spacing to adequately support the plate Select frame spacing to satisfy the locations of interior bulkheads or other layout considerations Calculate scantlings required for longitudinal stringers to satisfy their spacing and the span between frames Calculate scantlings required for transverse frames according to the depth of long'l stringers and the local span of the frames.

Per item 3, when considering an alternate material it is possible that due to a difference in plate yield strength as compared to the original design material (say steel), that the long'ls will be placed slightly more closely (say for the same thickness of plate, but a plate of lesser strength).

Generally, since the long's support the plate, they are the primary variable when plate thickness, or strength, or location is changed. It is no big deal to the structure, to the overall weight, or to ease of the building of the vessel (as compared to say steel) to have a tighter long'l spacing. This is the proper strategy to accommodate plate of different strength or thickness.

Once the plate is adequately supported, then scantlings of items 5 and 6 can be calculated according to their spans and the material strengths for the chosen framing materials.

It becomes obvious from the above that it is an advantage (in terms of weight) to select a relatively lesser thickness of plating, and a relatively more frequent interval for internal framing. On the other hand, it is usually an advantage in terms of building labor to select plate of a slightly greater thickness and a less frequent framing interval (so simpler internal structure).

Please see my article on Using the ABS Rule for a more detailed look at how scantlings are determined.  

Frameless Construction...?

There is quite a lot of misleading and incorrect information associated with the implied promise of "frameless" metal boats, a notion that is pandered by several offbeat designers and builders. The concept of "frameless" metal boats is attractive, but flawed.

If one applies well proven engineering principles to the problem of hull design as detailed above, one quickly discovers that for the sake of stiffness and lightness, frames are simply a requirement. For example, in order to achieve the required strength in a metal vessel without using transverse framing will require an enormous increase in plate thickness. Even with light weight materials such as aluminum alloy this would automatically result in a substantial weight penalty..

With light weight materials such as aluminum, one can certainly gain some advantage by the use of greater plate thickness, primarily in terms of maintaining fairness during fabrication, and in terms of ruggedness in use. Still, as strong as metal is, even with light weight materials there is definitely a need to support the plating and to reinforce and stiffen the structure as a whole using frames and stringers.

In general, the most suitable arrangement for internal structure is a combination of transverse frames and longitudinal stiffeners. Framing may sometimes be provided in the form of devious strategies... For example framing may be in the form of bulkheads or other interior and exterior structural features, placed in order to achieve the required plate reinforcement. Many so-called "frameless" boats do indeed make extensive use of longitudinals in combination with bulkheads or other internal structure to reduce the span of the longitudinal stiffeners.

While it is true that many metal boats are successfully plated , and their plating then welded up without the aid of metal internal framing during weld-up, in order to provide adequate strength in the finished vessel, frames must then be added before the hull can be considered finished. Even on a hull that will eventually have substantial internal framing this construction sequence can provide a big advantage when trying to maintain fairness during weld-up.

Experienced metal boat builders and designers have often come to recognize the potential benefits of building a metal boat over molds which do not hold the boat so rigidly as to make trouble during the weld-up. However, the competent among them also know that to leave the boat without internal framing is quite an irresponsible act.

Please see my articles on Framing and Frames First for more on this subject.  

Framing Systems

Framing systems are several, but can roughly be categorized into

Transverse Frames Only Transverse Frames with Longitudinal Stringers Web Frames with Longitudinal Stringers.

Among those, the Transverse Frames Only system is fairly common in Europe. In the US, the most commonly system used is the second system, where transverses are used in combination with longitudinal stringers.

In terms of scantlings, typically, long'ls will be half the depth, but approximately the same thickness as the transverse frames. It is an ABS requirement that transverse frames be twice the depth of the cut-out for the long'l.

Among some light weight racing yachts, a system of Webs with fairly beefy Long'l Stringers is the preferred approach, or alternately Webs with smaller Intermediate Transverse Frames, in combination with Long'l Stringers..

A somewhat generalized walkthrough of the usual design sequence is as follows:

For any given vessel size, plating will need to be a certain minimum thickness suited to that vessel size. For that given minimum plating thickness (for that particular boat) the long'l stringers will need to be a certain distance apart in order to adequately support the plate. The dimensions of the Long'l Stringers are determined by the vessel size, the spacing of the long's and the span of the long's between transverse frames. Finally, the dimensions of the Transverse Frames are determined according to the vessel size, the frame spacing, the span of the frames between supports, and by the requirement that the frames be no less in height than twice the height of the long's.

In other words, by this engineering approach the transverse frames are considered to be the primary support system for the long'l stringers, and the long'l stringers are considered to be the primary support system for the plating.

When a long'l member becomes the "dominant" member of the structure (usually locally only), it ceases to be referred to as a long'l stringer, and becomes instead a long'l "girder" (an engine girder for example).

If long'l stringers are not used, then the frames are the only means of support for the plating. They must therefore be more closely spaced in order to satisfy the needs of the plating for adequate support. In general though, long'l stringers are to be considered highly desirable, primarily because they contribute considerably to the global longitudinal strength of the yacht.

When calculating the strength of any beam, there is a benefit when the beam gains depth (height). Beams of greater height have a higher section modulus. Just as with beams of greater height, when calculating a vessel's global longitudinal strength it is the height of the vessel that makes the greatest contribution. Small and medium sized power and sailing yachts usually have very adequate height , so long'l strength calculations are less critical. For larger yachts or for yachts which have a low height to beam ratio, there it is necessary to consider long'l strength very closely. Witness the catastrophic failures of several recent America's Cup vessels....!

As a general guide to the boundary of acceptability, the ABS rules consider that a vessel must be no more than twice as wide as it is high (deck edge to rabbet line), and no greater than 15 times its height in overall length. Beyond these limits, a strictly engineering "proof" must be employed rather than the prescriptive ABS Section Modulus and Moment of Inertia requirements for calculating the strength of the global hull "girder."

The ABS Motor Pleasure Yachts Rule, 2000, is a very suitable scantling rule for boats of any material. Originally created for "self propelled vessels up to 200 feet, the scope of the Motor Pleasure Yachts Rule has been subsequently restricted to vessels between 79 and 200 feet. In that size range, the ABS Rules for Steel Vessels Under 200 Feet, and the ABS Rules for Aluminum Vessels may also be applied, in particular to commercially used vessels. For sailing craft of all materials, the ABS Rules for Offshore Racing Yachts is applicable to sailing vessels up to 79 feet.

The most appropriate means of assessing the adequacy of structure is to assure that a vessel's scantlings comply with the applicable ABS rule, or alternately the applicable rule published by Lloyd's Register (England), German Lloyds (Germany), Det Norske Veritas (Norway), Bureau Veritas (France), etc.

As we can see from the above, framing is highly desirable for any metal yacht. Without framing, plate thickness would become extreme, and consequently so would the weight of the structure...  

Computer Cutting

The labor involved in fabricating a metal hull can be reduced by a substantial amount via NC cutting. What is NC...? It simply means "Numerically Controlled." Builders who are sufficiently experienced with building NC cut hull structures estimate that they can save between 35% and 55% on the hull fabrication labor via computer cutting.

As an example, a fairly simple vessel of around 45 feet may take around 2,500 hours to fabricate by hand, complete with tanks, engine beds, deck fittings, etc. ready for painting. If one can save, say 40% of those hours, or some 1000, then at typical shop rates the savings can be dramatic. By comparison, the number of design hours one must spend at the computer to detail the NC cut files for such a vessel may amount to some three to four man-weeks, or perhaps some 160 hours.

With this kind of savings, the labor expended to develop the NC cut files will be paid for many times over. In fact, the savings are sufficient that NC cutting has the potential to "earn back" a fair portion of the cost of having developed a custom boat design...! Where there may be any doubt, please review our web article on how we use CAD effectively to develop our designs for NC Cutting .

Anymore, it is inconceivable to build a commercial vessel of any size without taking advantage of NC cutting. While this technology has been slow to penetrate among yacht builders, these days it is plain that builders and designers who ignore the benefits offered by computer modeling and NC cut hull structures simply have their heads in the sand. A possibly entertaining editorial on this is subject is Are We Still in the Dark Ages ...?  

Paint Systems

Small metal boats are not designed with an appreciable corrosion allowance. They must therefore be prepared and painted in the best way possible in order to assure a long life.

Current technology for protecting steel and aluminum boats is plain and simple: Epoxy paint .

When painting metal, a thorough degreasing is always the first step, to clean off the oils from the milling process, as well as any other contaminants, like the smut from welding, which have been introduced while fabricating.

The next important step is a very thorough abrasive grit blasting on a steel boat, or a somewhat less aggressive "brush blast" on an aluminum boat. The process of sand blasting a metal boat is expensive and can in no way be looked at with pleasure, except in the sense of satisfaction and well being provided by a job well done.

While there is no substitute for grit blasting, there are ways to limit the cost of the operation. When ordering steel, it is very much to a builder's advantage to have it "wheel abraded" and primed. Wheel abrading is a process of throwing very small shot at the surface at high speed to remove the mill scale and clean the surface. Primer is then applied. Having been wheeled and primed, the surfaces will be much easier to blast when the time comes.

In terms of the paint system, aluminum boats are dealt with more easily than steel boats. Aluminum must be painted any place a crevice might be formed where things are mounted, and should also be painted below the waterline, if left in the water year-round. The marine aluminum alloys do not otherwise require painting at all.

On an aluminum boat, any areas which will be painted should receive the same aggressive preparation regimen used on steel: thorough cleaning, sand blasting, and epoxy paint. Aluminum is less hard than steel, so sand blasting aluminum is relatively fast compared to steel. The blast nozzle must be held at a greater distance and the blast covers the area more quickly.

On a Copper Nickel or Monel vessel, there would simply be no need for paint anywhere.  

Many schemes are used to insulate metal boats. Insulation is mentioned here in the context of corrosion prevention mainly to point out that regardless of the type used, insulation is NOT to be considered an effective protection against corrosion. As with anywhere else on a metal boat, epoxy paint is the best barrier against corrosion.

Sprayed-on foam is not to be recommended. While popular, sprayed-on foam has many drawbacks that are often overlooked:

• Urethane foam is not a completely closed cell type of foam. With time, urethane foam will absorb odors which become difficult or impossible to get rid of. This is especially a problem when there are smokers aboard.
• Nearly all urethane foam will burn fiercely, and the fumes are extremely toxic. Blown in foam should therefore be of a fire retarding formulation, and should additionally be coated with a flame retarding intumescent paint.
• Sprayed-on foam makes a total mess, requiring extensive clean-up. The clean-up process actually further compromises the foam due to breaking the foam's surface skin.
• Sprayed-on foam requires that an intumescent paint be applied, both for the sake of fire suppression, and in order to re-introduce the seal broken by the clean-up of the spray job.

A much better insulation system is to use a Mastic type of condensation / vapor barrier such as MASCOAT, which adheres well to painted steel surfaces, as well as unpainted aluminum surfaces. It creates a barrier to water penetration, and an effective condensation prevention system. Applied to recommended thicknesses of around 60 mils, it is effective as insulation. Further, it is quite good at sound deadening, is fire proof, and will not absorb odors. Mascoat DTM is used for insulation, and Mascoat MSC for sound attenuation, very effective on engine room surfaces and above the propeller. Both are effective whether on a steel or an aluminum boat.

These mastic coatings can be painted if desired. In more severe climates the mastic coatings can be augmented by using a good quality flexible closed cell cut-sheet foam to fit between the framing. The best choices among these flexible cut-sheet foams are Ensolite and Neoprene. There are several different varieties of each. The choice of insulation foam should be made on the basis of it being fireproof, mildew proof, easily glued, easy to work with, resilient, and if exposed, friendly to look at. Ensolite satisfies all these criteria. Ensolite is better than Neoprene in most respects, but is slightly more expensive. One brand offering good quality flexible foam solutions for boats is ARMAFLEX.

Styrofoam or any other styrene type of foam should be strictly avoided. Go get a piece at your local lumber yard and throw it onto a camp fire.... You will be immediately convinced. The same applies to any of the typical rigid or sprayed-on urethane foams. They are an extreme fire hazard and cannot be recommended.  

Zincs are essential on any metal hull for galvanic protection of the underwater metals (protection against galvanic attack of a less noble metal by a more noble metal), as well as for protection against stray current corrosion.

In the best of all possible worlds, there would be no stray currents in our harbors, but that is not a reality. Regardless of the bottom paint used or the degree of protection conferred by high build epoxy paint, zincs must be used to control stray current corrosion, to which we can become victim with a metal boat, even without an electrical system, due to the possible presence of an electric field in the water having a sufficiently different potential at one end of your boat, vs the other end...!

The quantity of zinc and the surface area must be determined by trial and error by observing real-world conditions over time. However as a place to start, a few recommendations can be made. As an example, on a metal hull of around 35 feet the best scheme to start with would be to place two zincs forward, two aft, and one on each side of the rudder. With a larger metal boat of say 45' an additional pair of zincs amidships would be appropriate. As a vessel gets larger the zincs will become more numerous and / or larger in surface area.

Zincs will be effective for a distance of only around 12 to 15 feet, so it is not adequate to just use one single large zinc anode. Zincs will ideally be located near the rudder fittings, and near the propeller. The zincs forward are a requirement, even though there may be no nearby hull fitting, in order to prevent the possibility of stray current corrosion, should the paint system be breached.

Using the above scheme, after the first few months the zincs should be inspected. If the zincs appear to be active, but there is plenty left, they are doing their job correctly. If they are seriously wasted, the area of zinc should be increased (rather than the weight of zinc). During each season, and to adjust for different marinas, the sizes of the zincs should be adjusted as needed.

Good electrical connection between the zinc and the hull must be assured.  

Bonding is the practice of tying all of the underwater metals together with wires or bonding strips. It is done in order to 'theoretically' bring all of the underwater metals to the same potential, and aim that collective potential at a single large zinc. It is also done in order that no single metal object will have a different potential than surrounding metal objects for the sake of shock prevention.

However for maximum corrosion protection, metal boats will ideally NOT be bonded. This of course is contrary to the advice of the ABYC. Keep in mind though that the ABYC rules represent the consensus of the US Marine Manufacturers Association, and are therefore primarily aimed at satisfying the requirements aboard GRP vessels, about which the MMA is most familiar. Naturally, aboard a GRP boat the boat's structure is electrically inert and not subject to degradation by corrosion, therefore aboard a GRP boat there is no reason to recommend against bonding - except perhaps the fact that bonding all underwater metals using a copper conductor invites the possibility of stray current corrosion of those underwater metals due to the possible potential differential in the water from one end of the boat to the other.

Little by little though, the ABYC is learning more about the requirements aboard metal and wooden vessels, and recommendations for aluminum and steel boats have begun to appear in the ABYC guidelines. Even so, the corrosion vs shock hazard conundrum aboard metal boats is not 'solved' since the solutions are not as simple as they might at first seem. For an introduction to some of the issues with regard to bonding, please see our " Corrosion, Zincs & Bonding " booklet.  

Electrical System Considerations

Aboard a metal vessel, purely for the sake of preventing corrosion the ideal will be to make use of a completely floating ground system. In other words, the negative side of the DC power will not permitted to be in contact with the hull nor any hull fittings, anywhere. With a floating ground system, a special type of alternator is used which does not make use of its case as the ground, but instead has a dedicated negative terminal.

This is contrary to the way nearly all engines are wired. Typically, engines make use of the engine block as a mutual ground for all engine wiring. Also, the starter will typically be grounded to the engine, as will the alternator. And typically the engine is in some way grounded to the hull, possibly via the coolant water, or possibly via a water lubed shaft tube, or the engine mounts, or even a direct bonding wire, etc.

Needless to say, for the sake of preventing corrosion, there should not be a direct connection between the AC shore power and the hull. This includes that insidious little green grounding wire. This whole issue is avoided if a proper marine grade Isolation Transformer is installed, which has as its duty to totally isolate all direct connections between shore power and the onboard wiring. This is done by 'inducing' a current in the onboard circuits, thus the electrical energy generated has been created entirely within the secondary coils, and is therefore entirely separate from the shore side power.

The purpose of the green grounding wire is to return any leakage current back to ground onshore, rather than to leak away through the hull and its underwater metals into the water, seeking an alternate path to ground. If a leakage current of greater than 10 milliamps exists onboard (not at all uncommon), it presents an EXTREME hazard to swimmers nearby. This is especially dangerous in fresh water where a swimmer's body provides much less electrical resistance than the surrounding water, and the swimmer thereby becomes the preferred path for any stray currents in the water. With a leakage current above 20 milliamps, death can (and has) become the result. Above 100 milliamps, and the heart stops. Serious business.

The shore side green grounding wire must be brought aboard and connected to the primary side of the Isolation Transformer. It creates a 'fail safe' return path for the AC current seeking ground. But on the secondary side of the Isolation Transformer it serves no purpose onboard because the secondary side will have created an entirely independent electrical system, generated onboard , and not tied to shore power.

Separately, there should ideally be a green grounding wire in the onboard electrical system, however it should not be tied to the shore side green grounding wire. Recommendations differ here, and the Isolation Transformer should be chosen on the basis of providing COMPLETE isolation of the onboard electrical system from the shore power system... What this means is that if a particular Isolation Transformer's wiring diagram recommends connecting the shore side green grounding wire to the onboard green grounding wire (effectively defeating its very purpose) that Isolation Transformer should be rejected as a candidate for placement onboard.

Other "black box" devices should be avoided, including "zinc savers" or impressed current systems, etc. On a military vessel, commercial vessel, or large crewed yacht where these systems can be continuously monitored, such "active" protection schemes may have some merit. However on a small yacht, which may spend long periods with no-one aboard but which may still be plugged into shore power, an "active" system will not be attended to with any regularity, and could easily fail and develop a fault that could potentially cause rapid corrosion, resulting in considerable damage.

The ideal electrical system onboard will be entirely 12v or 24v DC, energized via a large battery bank. All installations should have an Isolation Transformer on the shore power connection. Onboard, the secondary side of the transformer can then be connected to marine quality battery chargers. Some battery chargers are available that have a built-in isolation transformer, but they should be screened on the basis described above. Then onboard if the only thing the Isolation Transformer connects to onboard is a large battery charger, then there is no real connection between the onboard DC system and the shore side AC system.

Using such a system, it is possible to have onboard AC power provided by inverters, directly energized by the large battery bank. This provides yet another barrier between the onboard AC electrical system and the shore power system. It also provides other considerable advantages.... For one, some types of isolation transformer can be switched in order to accept either 110v AC or 220v AC, and to output either voltage , depending on what the onboard equipment requires (essentially just the battery charger in this case). Since the isolation transformer and the battery chargers are also frequency agnostic, if all onboard AC is generated by inverters, you then have a truly shore power agnostic system. All onboard equipment will either be DC, or will be AC generated onboard by the inverters at the requisite frequency and voltage required by the onboard equipment.

Where this scheme gets defeated rather quickly is where there must be an air conditioning system, and / or a washer / dryer, all of which are very power hungry. But we can still keep from bringing shore power onboard to directly serve those items by using the above described system (i.e. shore power > isolation transformer > battery charger > battery bank > inverter > onboard AC system) in combination with an onboard AC generator. In this way, all AC current onboard will be generated onboard, either via the inverters for low current draw items, or by the generator when high current draw items are used, and frequency / voltage suddenly become a non-issue...

The whole point is to keep shore power OFF the boat by limiting its excursion only to the Isolation Transformer, where it stops completely. With all onboard power being created entirely onboard, there is no hazard to swimmers posed by stray currents attempting to seek ground onshore, because the onboard "ground" is, in fact, onboard...

I know there are those who will disagree with the above statements about electrical systems. Whether you agree or disagree, please don't come all unglued over these matters and instead, for much more complete information on these topics, please see the resources mentioned below...  

We can see that metal can make considerable sense as a hull building material. On the basis of strength, ruggedness, ease of construction, first cost, and ease of maintenance, there is plenty of justification for building a metal hull, whether steel, aluminum, Copper Nickel, or Monel.

Steel wins the ruggedness contest. Aluminum wins the lightness contest. Copper Nickel and Monel win the longevity and freedom from maintenance contest.

Part of the equation for any vessel is also resale. In this realm, aluminum does very well, albeit in this country not as well as composite construction. This is mainly a matter of market faith here in the US where we are relatively less educated about metal vessels. As for resale, a vessel built of Copper Nickel will fare extremely well. After all, the Copper Nickel or Monel vessel will have essentially been built out of money...!

Metal is an excellent structural material, being both strong and easily fabricated using readily available technology. In terms of impact, metal can be shown via basic engineering principles and real world evidence to be better than any form of composite. If designed well, a metal boat will be beautiful, will perform well, will be very comfortable, and will provide the peace of mind achieved only via the knowledge that you are aboard the safest, strongest, most rugged type of vessel possible.

It is said among dedicated blue water cruisers in the South Pacific that, "50% of the boats are metal; the rest of them are from the United States....!" Although this statement may seem so at times, it is fortunately not 100% true!!

It is my hope that the above essay will be of some value when considering the choice of hull materials. If you are intending to make use of metal as a hull material you may wish to review the article " Aluminum for Boats " that first appeared in Cruising World magazine, and the article " Aluminum vs. Steel " comparing the relative merits of both materials. Also, in defense of steel as a very practical boat building medium check out the article on " Steel Yachts ."

In addition, there are two excellent booklets available on our Articles and Other Links page. The first of them, the " Marine Metals Reference " is a brief guide to the appropriate metals for marine use, where they will be most appropriately used. It also contains welding information and a complete list of the physical properties of marine metals. The second booklet, " Corrosion, Zincs & Bonding " offers a complete discussion of electrical systems, corrosion, zincs, and bonding.  

Other Articles on Boat Structure

Metal Boats for Blue Water | Aluminum vs Steel | Steel Boats | Aluminum for Boats Metal Boat Framing | Metal Boat Building Methods | Metal Boat Welding Sequence | Designing Metal Boat Structure Composites for Boats | The Evolution of a Wooden Sailing Type  

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any designer/plan suggestion for building a steel sailboat

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Hi, We are planning to build our own steel sailboat in the 38' range for blue water cruising. We are in touch with bruce roberts about spray 38 but we want to be sure if we are on the right track about the designer of a steel sailboat. Considering the boat will be cruising mainly on the mediterranean sea, which designers or the specifically plans do you suggest?  

Bruce is certainly one of the most prolific and popular designers of steel boats and his designs are popular with those who wish to build their own. I'd say you couldn't go wrong choosing one of his designs and beginning your project, though personally, I am not that enamoured with his junk rigged boats.  

Ted Brewer is still selling plans and has a web site. But I don't think he supports his work much anymore. I believe he forwards folks to John (?) Simpson who is active. Ted Brewer Yacht Design http://simpsonmarinedesign.com Then there is Kasten Marine Design http://www.kastenmarine.com jay Bedford has some interesting stuff Benford Design Group Tell us more about what you are looking for and keep us posted.  

One Life is to short to build a boat. if you just want to build a boat because you like to build then build but if you want to sail a boat in your life time than buy a boat and go sailing. most home built boats of this size are never finished by the original builder and if ever finished it is usually by the third or forth owner. well over half are never finished. Way to many good boat for sale way cheaper then you can build one.  

Chester Grayber had that dream but he did not have adequate ventilation while doing all the welding so he died of lung cancer before he completed the hull despite working on it for around 3 decades. He was a steel salesman and got the steel at his cost. He used 11" wide steel strips since those were the largest he could handle without heavy equipment and a lot of forming. It took another man (Tom Taylor) an additional decade to partially finish the boat before it sank due to some issue with thru-hulls and an exhaust system below the water line. It was a 74 foot motor yacht but it does exemplify the potential time it can take when you have a day job and the risks of welding in a confined space. If you are actually planning on doing the work yourself and not have a ship yard build the steel hull for you then indeed vet out how many man hours will be required to do this and then at least double that if you'll be working alone. It can be done with planning and determination however if you have a day job it can take decades to pull it off by yourself. Yes a lot of the second owners issues could be viewed as self inflicted but its still a sad tale of a dream that ended badly for two men along with their families and spanned almost 40 years:  

many thanks for your sincere responses. actually we are sure about giving the plan to the shipyard to build the hull firstly. also we are in touch with our 2 friends in this sector who will help finding the builder and etc. the thing that we are not sure about yet, is to continue the project by ourselves or to let the ship yard finish it after the hull is built. so we will need extra advice and technical support during the process. as far as i heard bruce roberts is not efficient enough on this. as you know, it is important for us to get online support from the designer about revising the interior (if necessary) or anything. who do you suggest considering this?  

Ece Dursun said: many thanks for your sincere responses. actually we are sure about giving the plan to the shipyard to build the hull firstly. also we are in touch with our 2 friends in this sector who will help finding the builder and etc. the thing that we are not sure about yet, is to continue the project by ourselves or to let the ship yard finish it after the hull is built. so we will need extra advice and technical support during the process. as far as i heard bruce roberts is not efficient enough on this. as you know, it is important for us to get online support from the designer about revising the interior (if necessary) or anything. who do you suggest considering this? Click to expand...

I have not sailed on the Med so I am somewhat going on second hand information. My understanding is that (depending on the season) the Med has a strange mix of very light winds most of the time, with long periods of very high winds in between. I am quite familiar with the Roberts Spray designs, and frankly that would be close to the worst design you could chose to build for those types of conditions. The Spray is a high drag design with comparatively little stability for its drag. Because of that the choice of rigs tend to be extremely inefficient as well. This results in a boat that is essentially a motorsailor in light to moderate winds, and which is not particularly good in heavier winds. Steel is a really crummy material to use for boats under about 13.5 meters since there is a minimum plate thickness that can be used because of localized bending and so steel boats become excessively heavy. Having worked on the design for steel boats, and seen how they hold up over time, they are comparatively high maintenance and in most cases short lived compared to the other choices. That heavy weight of a steel hull results in a mix of poorer sailing ability, less stability, poorer motion, and less carrying capacity than a similar design executed in almost any other material. While steel has a very high strength per square area, it is also extremely dense. The net result is that compared to pretty much any other boat building material, on a pound for pound basis, steel is the weakest of the possible boat building materials to chose from. If you really want a metal boat, I would strongly suggest that you consider aluminum rather than steel. But in any event, if you have your heart set on steel construction, then I would look at Dudley Dix's designs. Dudley tends to produce designs with efficient hullforms and rigs. His drawings tend to be very complete and more fully explain how his boats are actually built. The details that I have seen have been very clever in terms of simplifying construction while producing structurally sound designs. He would be my first choice if that I was leaning towards a steel hulled design. There are other very high quality designers out there as well. As mentioned Ted Brewer has produced some very nice designs aimed at steel construction. I think his Kaiulani 38 is a particularly nice design. Van De Stadt has a number of nice designs. I was recently acquainted with their Helena 38 which appears to be an exceptionally nice design. I have not seen a set of Van De Stadt drawings but they have a reputation for producing well detailed and engineered designs and providing excellent customer support. I really liked some of Charlie Wittholz's designs. (I worked for him three decades ago) But Charlie has passed on and I can no longer find a source for his designs. I really liked his 'Departure' series. They were nice wholesome designs. But cutting to the chase, building any boat is wildly expensive proposition, and the cost of the drawings (even if you pay a couple thousand Euro higher price for the drawings) is the smallest part of the cost. Because of that pick the best design that you can find. Building a wildly out of date, poor sailing design, only results in creating a boat that will be joyless to own and difficult to resell. Respectfully, Jeff  

A friend of mine used to do steel hull plate inspections and the saddest thing to see for him was the look on a pleasure boat owners face after telling him his steel hull had thin spots and had to have bottom plates replaced before it could be put back into the water and still covered by his insurance. Overbuilding with heavier plate staves this off to a degree however at the sacrifice of capacity, etc. Keeping up with the sacrificial anode inspections and replacement helps too. He inspected Commercial, Coast Guard and Private vessels however a careless welder injured him cutting through a bulkhead out into a passageway that was not blocked off and he left steel boat building and refitting for a safer field of engineering. The hot slag hit him on the side of his face and got into one ear. He now works at a smaller firm as a land based civil engineer and is very picky about sites he will even set foot on if safety appears the least bit lax. He still loves boats and is between boats right now.  

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Steel for Sail and Power

S teel ships are the backbone of world trade, and navies around the world maintain their allegiance to the metal. Like-minded builders of smaller commercial fishing boats, tugs and barges also favor the iron/carbon amalgam. So why do we see so few recreational power and sailing vessels being built from what’s arguably the strongest and one of the least expensive boatbuilding materials? Before attempting to answer, it makes sense to take a close look at what steel has to offer.  

Riveted iron was the first step in a ship building renaissance, a trend that gave white oak and spruce trees a bit of a reprieve. Eventually, carbon was added to iron increasing its tensile strength and stiffness. At about the same time, welding expedited the building process and steel plate was cut and shaped using highly directable flame heat from oxyacetylene torches. Today, steel can also be cut with laser, plasma, waterjet, and saw blade technology. Metal workers bend hull plate over steel frames, tack weld the plate in place and eventually carefully fuse all the seams together.  

Stick welding became a highly prized craft essential to how frames were tacked in place and plate-to-plate seams were joined. At the heart of the process is the welder’s electrical transformer, a tool that turns AC current into lower voltage higher amperage DC current with the capacity to melt metal. Its lower voltage dissipates the shock hazard. Electrical welding harnesses an intentional short circuit. The positive and negative leads meet at the point where the welding rod touches the grounded plate. A key factor in welding involves smoothly working the rod across the seam allowing the high current to momentarily turn both the rod tip and plate into molten metal. When the steel “weld pool” cools, the resulting joint is as strong or even stronger than the hull plate itself.

Pluses and minuses Mild steel, as a material, has a long list of desirable attributes along with a couple of potential showstoppers. On the plus side, resides toughness, malleability, and isotropic strength (equal strength in all directions). The net effect of these attributes includes abrasion resistance and a structure that reacts to point loads by deforming rather than tearing. It’s also the least expensive of modern small craft building materials and is relatively easy to repair. The build process can be expedited using computer aided design (CAD), numerically controlled cutting (NC) and laser, plasma or waterjet cutters that steel suppliers use to provide pre-cut hull plating that fits together like puzzle pieces. Steel boat designer Michael Kasten has found that this service can cut building time of a 45-footer by up to 40%.

Rust is the enemy of every steel boat owner. Adding carbon to iron increases the metal’s strength but also ups its tendency to oxidize. As steel begins to corrode a powdery, rufous-colored scale quickly grows into flake-like layers of rust as the material’s strength and stiffness disappear. Steel ships are designed with a specific percentage of added plate thickness to account for corrosion over the vessel’s design lifespan (usually 20 years). Small craft designers can’t afford to add the weight of thicker plate and the design process seldom incorporates such corrosion compensation. Instead, contemporary coatings, meticulous preparation and application techniques will do a very good job of holding rust at bay.  

Streamlining steel boat construction defies the round bilge smooth curve status quo. And one of the biggest challenges involves generating hard chine aesthetic appeal and maintaining bilateral symmetry. In short, the challenge is bending flat plate into a functional hydrodynamic shape with enough aesthetic appeal to draw a sailor’s eye. In years gone by, master craftsmen struggled to twist and cajole steel plate over round bilge frames that incorporated compound curves galore. In many cases, several hundred pounds of epoxy filler had to be pasted to the hull, troweled out and sanded smooth with “long boards” to mimic the fairness of a timber or FRP hull. Today, single chine, multi chine and radius chine designs prevail. They are designed to minimize the slab-sided look and are much easier to build than a complete round bilge boat. The FRP production boat industry has helped by following automotive trends, and adding a chine to their racers and cruisers.  

Fine tuning stability The design challenge also includes how the significant weight of steel is handled. When it comes to vessels less than 50 feet, weight distribution becomes an even bigger issue. For example, to lessen weight above decks and still minimize deck flex, a designer must use thinner plate, 10- or even thinner 12-gauge steel. This requires shorter spans between transverse and longitudinal support or a switch to stiffer Corten steel. Some builders even switch to aluminum above the sheer, a weight saving alternative that ups costs and adds complexity.  

This metal transition requires the installation of an explosion welded bi-metallic strip that’s composed of aluminum bonded to steel. It allows a fabricator to conventionally weld one side of the junction strip to the hull’s sheer and then TIG or MIG weld an aluminum superstructure to the opposite side. Welding aluminum requires an inert gas to shield the arc, and the plate is harder to weld but easier to cut. The surface can be left uncoated, it will form a self-protecting, lightly oxidized layer that abates further oxidation. The steel hull, however, must be blasted, primed and painted inside and out. And as Michael Kasten professes, “clean and grit blast the surface, apply epoxy and avoid using sprayed-in foam insulation.”

The all-steel alternative can also be designed as a seaworthy vessel if careful attention is paid to weight distribution and the height of the superstructure. Payload location can also be a vital consideration. During the design process, every effort should be made to place machinery and integral tankage as low in the bilge as possible. Chain, batteries, and heavier equipment should also reside in the dry spaces below the cabin sole. If a power cruiser is to be an offshore passage maker, these vertical center of gravity considerations rule out the double-decker riverboat look and it’s also wise to avoid perching a sizable runabout and lifting crane on the top deck, aft of a heavy flybridge. A fringe benefit found aboard lower air draft power cruisers is that it places cabin space closer to the waterline where there is less effect from pitch and roll and windage is lessened.  

Sail and power Over the last 40 years I’ve kept track of a small but hearty 45-foot tug/work boat built by Gladding-Hearn Shipbuilding in Somerset, Mass. Dragon belonged to a friend of mine and played a central role in his marine construction business. And whether he was pushing a small crane barge, towing a load of pilings up and down Long Island Sound or when the vessel was loaded up with a sunfish, whitehall rowboat and provisions for a summer family cruise to Block Island — Dragon fit the bill. For decades Captain Jim and now his oldest son Eric have followed a regular rust abatement routine. Their anti-corrosion strategy included regular inspections of hard-to-get-at confines and never painting over rust. The grinder and wire wheel effectively abraded small spots but grit blasting to “white-metal” status was used when appropriate. Their painting preference revolved around PPG Ameron products. High on their to-do list was changing zincs and meticulously servicing the trusty old Detroit 6-71 diesel.  

Steel sailboats and power cruisers still hold justified appeal, but it’s important to understand what ownership entails. This is especially true for those considering a DIY build of a steel cruising boat. A good starting point is a thorough review of both Bruce Roberts and Michael Kasten’s in-depth online commentary. There’s plenty of valid detail about building metal boats, both aluminum and steel. Those with experience in welding and metal fabrication have a very significant head start and finished hulls will reflect those who learn metal work during the project and those who start out with essential fabrication skills.  

If you’re considering purchasing a steel cruising boat it’s essential to engage a skilled, metal boat-versed, marine surveyor. But before that develop a clear vision of what you are after. A handy way to compare vessels is through the use of parametric analysis. It’s basically, a straight forward spec comparison among two or more vessels and recognition of how the numbers relate to underway characteristics.  

Two hulls compared In this case I’ll compare my own well-seasoned 41-foot Ericson (18,000 pounds displacement (six-foot draft, 10’ 8” beam, 8,200 pound   ballast, 750 square foot   sail area) with a classic round bilge, steel 37-foot Zeeland Yawl, (18,000 pounds displacement 5’8” draft, 10’ beam, 5,700 pounds ballast, 550 square foot sail area). Though the two boats’ displacements are similar, the Zeeland Yawl’s working sail area is a lot less. This is likely due to a lower righting moment (ability to resist heeling). A further indicator of this diminished stability is the lower ballast/weight ratio, even though the displacement numbers are the same. The net result is a bit less ability to recover from a deep knockdown or capsize. The designer saw this and responded with a smaller sail area that induces less of a heeling moment.  

In real world terms this means that the E-41 would be far more efficient sailing in light air as well as more likely to avoid a knockdown, even when both boats are deeply reefed. But when it comes to sailing higher latitudes with bergy bits floating by, or fetching up on an uncharted rocky shoal, the Zeeland Yawl’s Corten steel hull wins hands down.  

The reason welded steel construction has dominated the maritime industry for decades yet made only a slight ripple in the realm of recreational small craft construction is multifaceted. In part it’s due to the production efficiency of molded FRP boat building, the ongoing concern over corrosion, plus the reality that most recreational craft aren’t put to the same rugged use as commercial vessels and work boats. However, for those who sail or power cruise well off the beaten path, steel hulls are still held in high regard and to rank number one when it comes to abrasion resistance and survivability in groundings, collisions, and other blunt force trauma. n  

Ralph Naranjo is a circumnavigator and the author of The Art of Seamanship (International Marine/Ragged Mountain Press).

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Boat Storage

Storage for All Boat Classes

Some states have class designations for boat lengths. No matter how long your boat is or what the clearance height is while trailered, there’s a General Steel boat storage solution to suit you.

Class A boats are determined to be less than 16 feet in length at their longest dimension.

For these boats, a 20’ x 20’ enclosed steel building will provide enough space to protect the boat as well as a moderate amount of boating gear.

Class 1 boats measure 16 feet to less than 26 feet. A Class 1 boat can easily be safely and securely sheltered with a 40’ x 40’ or 30’ x 40’ enclosed steel building.

Class 2 boats measure between 26 feet and 40 feet. These are typically houseboats, pontoons, or sailboats.

For Class 2 boats, a 40’ x 40’ or larger enclosed steel building is ideal.

Class 3 boats range in lengths between 40 feet and 65 feet. For boats in the Class 3 size category, a General Steel building measuring 40’ x 80’ or larger is suitable.

Steel Buildings for Boat Storage

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General Steel buildings can also be sized to accommodate multiple boats of varying lengths. With the right floor plan and design assistance, there’s virtually no limit to the size, height, and accessories available with your new steel boat storage building.

All General Steel boat storage buildings can be customized with your choice of extras, colors, and premium options. Have something unique in mind? Great! Our team loves to develop just the right design and materials kit to accurately meet our customers’ needs.

The best part about buying a boat storage building from General Steel is that everything you need to build is all included in one shipment. That means every nut, bolt and fastener, bar none! This reduces building time and eliminates confusion. Obtaining a Quote for Your Boat Storage Building

Getting a quote from General Steel for a new boat storage facility is easy. Just head over to our Price Your Building page, follow the prompts, and a member of our team will be in touch with you shortly.

Your boat is an investment that deserves the best in protection and security when it’s not on the water. General Steel buildings provide outstanding durability, low cost ownership, and an unmatched warranty that can’t be beat.

Explore the various boat storage building dimensions and feel free to contact us with your questions.

Better Sailing

Pros and Cons of Steel Sailboats

What is better, a Steel or a Fiberglass sailboat? This is a common question that does not have an easy answer. Both Steel and fiber have their advantages and disadvantages and depend mainly on the size and use that we will give to our boat.

Pros and cons of Steel boats versus fiberglass boats (Glass Reinforced Plastic or GRP):

Steel sailboat hulls are much stronger than fiber or GRP boats. In general, Steel allows stronger structures to be equal in weight. A Steel boat is much more robust, and its structure is more rigid, so a Steel boat will better withstand bumps and rubs. In the event of an impact, the Steel bends while a fiber boat breaks, this as long as it is not a very violent or large blow. Steel has a high ductility or ability to withstand permanent deformations without breakage, and in this way, a Steel boat can be stranded on a beach, resisting the chafing of these abuses.

Steel hulls, if the right alloy is used, resist saltwater corrosion better than steel boats and do not require any special paint. They also suffer from galvanic or electrolytic corrosion that can be avoided with a well-insulated electrical installation and placing sacrificial anodes. Fiber boats do not suffer the effects of corrosion, although they can be affected by the phenomenon of osmosis and suffer from the sun’s ultraviolet rays.

Steel is a lighter material than fiber, this makes the construction of a Steel sailboat a lighter vessel. Therefore it will be faster and will need less power/wind to move the same distance as a fiber boat, which also means a lower consumption boat.

Manageability

Fiber boats being heavier are also more stable and solid at high speeds, and when the state of the sea begins to get choppy and complicated. A Steel boat at high speeds can feel more nervous and rough with a choppy sea.

Steel boats are louder than fiber boats, especially at high speeds and with bad seas. It is is a better transmitter of temperature, and therefore and if it is not well insulated in its construction with a thick layer of polyurethane or other insulators, it will be hotter in hot and cold places in the winter. Steel boats also suffer from condensation problems more than fiber boats. Therefore a fiber boat can be somewhat more comfortable than a Steel boat.

• Maintenance

Steel boats because of corrosion require greater maintenance, a problem to be monitored are the galvanic pairs of material, a corrosion effect that occurs when pieces of different metals are put together. We must be careful with the quality of any part or screw we use as it could cause us a serious problem. We must also clean the boat thoroughly with fresh water after each use.

Fiber boats do not have rivets, welds, or corrosion to worry about, although possible osmosis problems must be monitored every year, which, if not treated in time, can cause serious problems. However, osmosis problems with the new resins can be. They have palliated a lot with respect to helmets of 20 or 30 years ago. The anti-fouling that is a painting that is given to the live work of the boats to prevent different types of algae, barnacles, and snails from being embedded in the hull, is much more expensive for Steel boats than for boat fiber.

Small dents in a Steel boat are easy to repair, but when the damage is in large areas of the hull, repairs are more difficult and expensive than in fiber boats. Welding in Steel is a very specialized and complicated job, finding professionals trained to repair fiber is easier and cheaper. However, a large and partial repair in a fiber hull does not guarantee the original strength since the structural tension will no longer be the same at all points.

Fiberglass boats have a more beautiful, polished, and shiny finish. The surface finish of the Steel boats leaves the marks of the interior reinforcements marked. For these boats to look good, it is necessary to paint them with special and very thick paints. They are actually covered with putty to hide the inevitable buns and construction defects. This layer of putty must be polished by hand so that it is finished with a good finish and should be done in a controlled environment with dust extraction. It is definitely a complicated process, very expensive, and that greatly increases the price of this type of boats.

It is true that the GRP burns faster and easier, so in the event of a fire, a Steel boat will always be safer. Fiber or GRP boats are built with petroleum products and therefore are combustible. Also, before an impact with a rock, it is easier to make a waterway in a fiber boat than in a Steel one.

Residual Value

The wear and tear of fiberglass boats are greater over the years, exposure to sunlight and osmosis do not affect Steel boats. They also better resist the encrustation of seaweed and marine crustaceans. The greater rigidity and structural strength also make Steel ships stand up better over the years, and for all this, they depreciate less than fiber boats.

Fiber boats allow serial construction from a first mold or design, this leads to faster manufacturing and lower construction costs. For this and as we have explained before, Steel ships are generally much more expensive than GRP ships.

Pros and Cons of Steel Sailboats – Summary

In general, Steel allows for stronger structures, but it is much more expensive to build than in GRP. For small boats, which is the case of recreational boating, in which there is no need for large structural resistance, the GRP is undoubtedly a good choice. As the ship grows in size, the thing gets complicated, since the GRP is not able to give the required resistance to the ship without an already significant weight gain.

Peter is the editor of Better Sailing. He has sailed for countless hours and has maintained his own boats and sailboats for years. After years of trial and error, he decided to start this website to share the knowledge.

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Steel Boat Building: From Plans to Launching Paperback – January 1, 1992

• Print length 196 pages
• Language English
• Publisher Intl Marine Pub Co
• Publication date January 1, 1992
• Dimensions 7.25 x 1 x 10.25 inches
• ISBN-10 0877423121
• ISBN-13 978-0877423126
• See all details

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Product details

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Intl Marine Pub Co (January 1, 1992)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 196 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0877423121
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0877423126
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 2.35 pounds
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 7.25 x 1 x 10.25 inches
• #9,461 in Technology (Books)
• #50,384 in Engineering (Books)

About the author

Thomas e. colvin.

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sanlorenzo brings hydrogen-run ‘50steel’ superyacht by piero lissoni to monaco yacht show

Sanlorenzo’s hydrogen-run 50steel at monaco yacht show 2024.

First introduced in May 2024, Sanlorenzo brings its hydrogen -powered 50Steel superyacht with interiors designed by Piero Lissoni to the Monaco Yacht Show 2024. It makes its way to Port Hercule for the international boat show together with the open-coupe SP110, after it docked at the Cannes Yachting Festival 2024 between September 10th and 15th, 2024. Gracing the Monaco port, the 50Steel yacht is set to stay there from September 25th to 28th.

The superyacht’s striking feature isn’t just the five staggered decks of the exterior designed by Zuccon International Project Studio and the hospitality-inspired interiors of Piero Lissoni. It’s also the fact that it’s dubbed the world’s first superyacht to apply the Reformer Fuel Cell system, a patented technology that the shipbuilder co-developed with Siemens Energy, which uses green methanol to generate the electricity that powers the entire vessel.

Reformer Fuel Cell system turns green methanol into hydrogen

In a nutshell, Sanlorenzo’s 50Steel superyacht’s Reformer Fuel Cell system with Siemens Energy transforms green methanol into hydrogen, then turns this hydrogen into electricity that powers the vessel. Usually, hydrogen needs to be stored, but in this yacht, designed with a steel hull and aluminum superstructure by Zuccon International Project Studio , the fuel-cell system creates hydrogen from green methanol on demand.

This means it generates it when it’s needed, so there’s no need to store it onboard. The Reformer Fuel Cell system supplies the electrical power for the superyacht’s hotel-like systems, such as the lights and air conditioning, without the need to use traditional fuel like diesel. For Piero Lissoni, who worked on the interiors of the 50Steel superyacht, this may be his most creative boat because it uses hydrogen to power the fixtures in the cabins.

Piero lissoni calls sanlorenzo 50steel superyacht ‘creative’

The Italian architect, art director, and designer says that Sanlorenzo’s 50Steel superyacht is creative ‘because it no longer has decks, but rather areas that have been designed as true architectures, with large spaces that dialogue with each other. It’s creative because, when open, there’s a barrier-free beach club extending for over 135 square meters. And it’s creative because what was previously the engine room has now become a living area.’ What Piero Lissoni means is Sanlorenzo’s HER system, aka the ‘Hybrid Engine Room.’

It’s a new concept for the engine room on a superyacht because normally, it can take up to two levels of vertical space. In that case, the engine room uses up space that could’ve been for the passengers. With HER, the engines, components, and other mechanical systems on board are placed horizontally, so that they only take up one level (and not vertically). This frees up a whole extra level in the lower part of the 50Steel yacht, which the design team has taken advantage of by installing an ocean lounge with a large aft Beach Club, spa, and gym all in a single, open space.

Even before the visitors step onto the 50Steel superyacht, they can already see the five staggered decks with less partitions. The concept of hospitality is present, from the spacious salon to the dedicated gym and spa on the lower deck. The design team uses light and muted colors and materials to bring out the hotel nature of the interiors.

In fact, part of Piero Lissoni’s brief was to reinvent the classic style. He and the design team do so by placing coffered ceilings and dark-wood walls around the interiors, softened and illuminated by masked warm lighting. On the upper deck, the dining room sits in the middle of the space.

In total, Sanlorenzo’s 50Steel superyacht has four guest cabins and one for the owner. There are also two pools, one on the aft Beach Club and another on the sun deck. Going to the three upper levels, a system of stairs connects them all, a way to bridge as much space as the design allows.

Those who may want to slow down and look at the horizon can do so on one of the three open terraces that the design team has opened up for the visitors. When docked, the superyacht also doesn’t release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, thanks to the fuel-cell system Sanlorenzo has installed for the vessel, trading diesel for green methanol to fuel its electricity.

bedroom view

Sanlorenzo’s 50Steel yacht is set to stay for Monaco Yacht Show until September 28th, 2024

project info:

name: 50Steel

company: Sanlorenzo | @sanlorenzoyacht

interiors: Piero Lissoni | @pierolissoni

studio: Zuccon International Project Studio | @zuccon_international_project

fuel cell system: Siemens Energy

events: Cannes Yachting Festival 2024, Monaco Yacht Show 2024

interior photography: Guillaume Plisson, Gionata Xerra

styling: vandersandestudio | @vandersandestudio

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Voronezh city, Russia

The capital city of Voronezh oblast .

Voronezh - Overview

Voronezh is a city located in the central part of European Russia, about 520 km south of Moscow. The administrative center of Voronezh Oblast, it stands on the banks of the Voronezh River, 12 km from its confluence with the Don River. Voronezh is considered the cradle of the Russian navy and the birthplace of the airborne troops.

The population of Voronezh is about 1,048,700 (2022), the area - 596 sq. km.

The phone code - +7 473, the postal codes - 394000-394094.

Voronezh city flag

Voronezh city coat of arms.

Voronezh city map, Russia

Voronezh city latest news and posts from our blog:.

9 September, 2015 / Kalacheevskaya Cave - the longest cave in Voronezh region .

10 May, 2010 / Voronezh oblast palace of the princess photos .

History of Voronezh

Foundation of voronezh.

The first mention of Voronezh dates back to 1177 in connection with the battle of the Vladimir and Ryazan princes and the escape of Yaropolk of Ryazan to “Voronozh”. Some historians suggest, based on fragments of these chronicles, that Voronezh (Voronozh) existed as a settlement back in the 12th century. Other historians believe that the chronicle meant only the Voronezh River.

The second, very significant, mention of Voronezh in the chronicles refers to 1237, when the conquest of the Russian principalities by Khan Batu began during the Western campaign of the Mongols. The Russian princes decided to give the first battle to the enemies “and came out against them in Voronozh”, but were defeated. Again, the word “Voronozh” probably means the Voronezh River, not a settlement.

The Tsar’s decree on the foundation of Voronezh has not yet been found. The archive has an order of the boyar Nikita Yuriev from 1586 on the reorganization of the guard service on the southern outskirts of the Moscow state and on the construction of two fortified settlements: Livny and Voronezh. Thus, the official year of the foundation of Voronezh is 1586.

Located on the trade route at the confluence of the Voronezh River with the Don, Voronezh could not remain an exclusively military town for a long time. In 1615, its population was about 7 thousand people. From the middle of the 17th century, Russian and foreign ambassadors to the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khanate, and the Caucasus travelled through Voronezh. It became part of the Belgorod line - fortifications that protected the Russian state from the raids of the Crimean Tatars until the end of the 17th century.

More Historical Facts…

Voronezh - the cradle of the Russian navy

In 1695, during the first Azov campaign, Russian troops were unable to capture the fortress of Azov standing on the bank of the Don River, several kilometers from its confluence with the Sea of Azov. The siege was unsuccessful, as the Ottoman garrison in the fortress received support from the sea.

Therefore, Peter I decided to start building a fleet. Voronezh was chosen for this because of its strategic position on the Voronezh River flowing into the Don. Secondly, there were forests near the town that could be used as building materials. Thirdly, the residents of Voronezh had experience in the construction and use of river vessels.

In 1696, as a result of the second campaign, the Azov fortress was taken by Russian troops. The Russian fleet prevented the supply of people, ammunition and food to the fortress. From 1696 to 1711, about 215 ships were built in Voronezh, including the ship “Goto Predestinatsia” (The Providence of God) - the first Russian ship of the line.

In Voronezh, the organizational foundations for the subsequent construction of the Russian fleets in the Baltic and Black Seas were laid. The first Admiralty in Russia was also created here. However, the military shipyard in Voronezh did not exist for long due to the gradual shallowing of the rivers.

Voronezh in the 18th-19th centuries

In 1709, Voronezh became part of the Azov Governorate. In 1711, its center moved from Azov to Tambov, and in 1715 - to Voronezh. In 1725, after the death of the first Russian emperor, the region was renamed into the Voronezh Governorate. In 1745, the first educational institution was opened - the theological seminary (closed in 1918, reopened in 1993).

In 1748, Voronezh was badly damaged by fire. Almost the entire center, which was located on the bank of the river, burned down. After that, the center of Voronezh again began to be located in the place of today’s Universitetskaya Square.

In 1774, after another big fire, Catherine II approved the general plan for the regular development of Voronezh. In the second half of the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries, Voronezh was one of the centers of the Russian cloth industry.

In 1781, the coat of arms of Voronezh was approved: “The shield is divided in two, in the upper part in a golden field - a two-headed black eagle, and in the lower part in a red field - an overturned jar, from which the Voronezh River flows”.

In 1863, according to the census of residents, Voronezh numbered 38,672 people (the 12th largest city in the Russian Empire). The first public library was opened in 1864. In 1868, Voronezh was connected by railway with Moscow, in 1871 - with Rostov-on-Don, in 1894 - with Kursk.

Voronezh in the first half of the 20th century

In 1913, the first secular higher educational institution in Voronezh was opened - the Agricultural Institute named after Peter the Great (Voronezh State Agrarian University named after Emperor Peter I). In 1914, the population of the city was 93,700 people. During the First World War, reserve military units were formed in Voronezh, defense enterprises from the western regions of the Russian Empire were evacuated here.

In 1928, Voronezh became the center of the Central Black Earth Oblast. And after its liquidation in 1934, it remained the center of Voronezh Oblast. On August 2, 1930, the first Soviet airborne assault was parachuted two kilometers from Voronezh. Today, August 2 is celebrated as the birthday of the Russian airborne forces.

In 1932, two large factories were built on the left bank - aviation and rubber. One of the most important industrial and scientific complexes in the USSR was formed in the city. Many types of aircraft produced in Voronezh began to enter the Red Air Force several years before the outbreak of World War II. In 1939, the population of Voronezh was 326,932 people.

In October-November 1941, during the Second World War, most of the large enterprises were evacuated to the east. From July 7, 1942 to January 25, 1943, the right-bank part of Voronezh, being under German occupation, suffered significant damage, about 18 thousand houses were destroyed (92% of all residential buildings). The active defense of Voronezh helped the Red Army to withstand and win in Stalingrad.

In November 1945, it was decided to prioritize the restoration of 15 oldest Russian cities, including Voronezh. In the late 1940s, the restoration of industrial enterprises was completed, by the mid-1950s - residential and public buildings. In 1956, the population of the city exceeded 400 thousand people.

Voronezh in the second half of the 20th century

In 1968, the first serial Soviet supersonic passenger aircraft Tu-144 was produced at the Voronezh Aviation Plant; in October 1977 - the first Soviet airbus (wide-body aircraft) Il-86. In 1972, the Voronezh reservoir was built, which became the largest in the region.

In 1983, about 6 km from the city limits, the construction of the Voronezh nuclear power plant for heat supply began. In 1990, under the influence of the Chernobyl disaster, it was suspended on the basis of a referendum held among Voronezh residents. The station, which was approximately 65% completed, was mothballed. In 2020, work began on its dismantling. In 1989, the population of Voronezh was about 887,000.

In the 1990s, in connection with the collapse of the USSR, the largest industrial enterprises of Voronezh were on the verge of bankruptcy due to a sharp decline in defense orders and the breakdown of existing economic ties. A lot of churches were returned to the Russian Orthodox Church; their restoration was carried out.

In the early and mid-1990s, agreements on twinning relations were concluded between Voronezh and the cities of Charlotte (USA), Chongqing (China) and Sliven (Bulgaria).

In 2008, Voronezh was awarded the title “City of Military Glory”. In 2009, a new Cathedral of the Annunciation, the third largest Orthodox church in Russia, was built to replace the destroyed one. On December 17, 2012, a millionth resident was born in the city, which made Voronezh the 15th city in Russia with a population of over 1 million.

Street views of Voronezh

On a busy street in Voronezh

Author: Lantsov Dmitriy

Autumn in Voronezh

Author: Katerina Sorokina

Beautiful architecture of Voronezh

Author: Boris Fedorov

Voronezh - Features

Initially, the city stood on the banks of the Voronezh River. In the 1970s, it was turned into a reservoir - one of the largest reservoirs in the world located entirely within the city. The Voronezh reservoir divides the city into two parts. Its center, cultural institutions, embankments, the best establishments, and the most prestigious districts are located on the right bank. On the left bank there are industrial enterprises, residential areas, and one beautiful park. The two banks are connected by three bridges: the longest of them is Severnyy Bridge (2 km long).

There are several versions of the origin of the name of the Voronezh River after which the city of Voronezh was named. Most likely it comes from the word “voron” (“raven”) or “voronoy” (black) reflecting the dark color of the water in the Voronezh River. The City Day of Voronezh is celebrated annually on the third Saturday of September.

Voronezh is located in a temperate zone. Winter is moderately frosty with a permanent snow cover that forms in December. Quite often there are thaws accompanied by rains (especially in December). Also there are often drops in temperature below minus 20 degrees Celsius, which can last up to a week or more.

Summer is warm, even hot (especially July and the first half of August), in some years - rainy, in some years - dry. Autumn is mild and rainy. The Voronezh reservoir is covered with ice in late November - early December. Spring ice drift lasts from March to April. The average temperature in January is minus 7.6 degrees Celsius, in July - plus 22.7 degrees Celsius.

Voronezh is the economic center of the Voronezh region and one of the largest economic centers in Russia. The leading sectors of the economy are food, chemical, radio-electronic industries, mechanical engineering and retail trade. The largest enterprises of Voronezh are Voronezh Joint-Stock Aircraft Building Company, Voronezh Mechanical Plant, Voronezh Ceramic Plant, Carriage Repair Plant named after V.I. Thalmann.

This city is a major transport hub, the transport system of which consists of air, rail and road transport systems. The Peter the Great Voronezh International Airport offers regular flights to Moscow, St. Petersburg, Sochi, Kaliningrad, Samara, Krasnodar, Novosibirsk, Kazan, Yekaterinburg, Rostov-on-Don. Public transport is represented by mini-buses, buses and trolleybuses.

Voronezh is worth visiting not only for its interesting museums, beautiful parks and picturesque squares. Here you can also see funny monuments to animals - heroes of famous literary works, replicas of the first ships of the Russian navy, unusual buildings in the Art Nouveau and Gothic style of the late 19th-20th centuries.

There are a lot of traditional Russian churches, theaters, and former merchant mansions in Voronezh that catch the eye with their noble and elegant appearance. Also, tourists should pay attention to the monuments perpetuating the image of the heroes of the Second World War. The Voronezh Sea, a huge reservoir stretching for tens of kilometers, is of no less interest.

Main Attractions of Voronezh

Monument to White Bim Black Ear - one of the unofficial symbols of Voronezh; a dog sitting on a pavement and patiently waiting for the return of its owner. The monument is dedicated to the main character of the story of the same name created by the Voronezh writer Gavriil Troyepolsky. The monument is located at Revolyutsii Avenue, 48, near the puppet theater “Shut” (“Jester”).

Monument to Kitten from Lizyukova Street - a monument dedicated to the kitten Vasily from the Soviet cartoon “Kitten from Lizyukova Street”, who, according to the plot, lived on Lizyukova Street in Voronezh. The monument looks like a tree on the branches of which a kitten and a crow are sitting and conducting a conversation. Generala Lizyukova Street, 4.

Memorial Complex “Victory Square” - one of the central squares of Voronezh with the memorial complex in honor of the defenders of the city in 1942-1943. At the northern end of the square, there is a monument made of red granite and metal, consisting of 12 figures depicting all branches of the Red Army, as well as partisans and militias. The eternal flame burns in front of the monument. At the southern end of the square, there is a 40-meter high stele.

Annunciation Cathedral (1998-2009) - the third largest Orthodox church in Russia and one of the tallest Orthodox churches in the world (85 meters) constructed in a picturesque Russian-Byzantine style and located in close proximity to Victory Square. Revolyutsii Avenue, 14B.

Cathedral of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos (1833-1841) - one of the main architectural sights of Voronezh. The main feature of this church is its gradual construction, in several stages, therefore its premises differ stylistically. Bekhtereva Street, 36.

Voronezh Museum of Local Lore - one of the leading museums in Voronezh. Here you can see numismatic, ethnographic, philatelic, weapons collections, as well as collections of porcelain, ceramics, rare books, and other unique exhibits. The main building of the museum is a picturesque urban mansion of the early 20th century with a bright red facade. Plekhanovskaya Street, 29. The museum “Arsenal” , a department of the local history museum, is completely devoted to weapons of the 13th-20th centuries and the Second World War. Stepan Razin Street, 43.

Ship Museum “Goto Predestinatsia” - a replica of a real ship from the times of Peter I docked at Admiralty Square; the first Russian ship of the line. Its exposition tells about the origin and development of the Russian navy. Another attraction located on Admiralty Square is the Assumption Admiralty Church built in the 17th century - the oldest preserved church in Voronezh.

Art Museum named after I. N. Kramskoy - one of the largest cultural centers of Voronezh located in a palace built in the Baroque style in 1777-1779, an architectural monument of federal significance. The museum presents a unique collection of art works of Ancient Egypt, antiquity, Russian and Western European painting of the 18th-20th centuries, icon painting, graphics, decorative and applied art, sculpture, paintings created by famous Voronezh artists, as well as works of contemporary Voronezh artists. Revolyutsii Avenue, 18.

“Museum of Forgotten Music” - one of the most interesting and unusual exhibitions in Voronezh, which consists of musical instruments of different nations. The collection includes exhibits found in different parts of Russia, many of which have been restored. Another part of the unusual exposition is the instruments that have been recreated from books, old drawings, and even from works of art. It is noteworthy that any of the exhibits can not only be touched and held in hands, but you can also play them. 9 Yanvarya Street, 108.

Rotunda - the ruins of the main entrance to the building of the Voronezh regional children’s hospital. Destroyed during the battles for Voronezh during World War II, it was preserved as a monument that always reminds of what hard times the city left behind. There are similar monuments in Berlin and Dresden (Germany), in Coventry (England), in Warsaw (Poland), and in Volgograd (former Stalingrad). Transportnaya Street, 69.

Park “Scarlet Sails” - one of the most beautiful natural attractions of Voronezh, located in the Levoberezhny (left-bank) district of the city, on the bank of the Voronezh reservoir. The total area of this pine park is 6.2 hectares. For residents and guests of the city, various concerts and festive programs, fairs, and theatrical performances are held here. Arzamasskaya Street, 4?.

Voronezh Oceanarium - one of the best oceanariums in Russia located in the village of Solnechny (Parkovaya Street, 3), about 3 km from the city limits of Voronezh along the Voronezh-Moscow highway. This oceanarium features 180 species of fish, 55 species of mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and other animals.

Princess Oldenburg’s Palace (Ramon Palace) - a unique palace complex of the late 19th century located in the village of Ramon, about 37 km north of Voronezh, a brick neo-Gothic architectural monument rare for the Russian province. Its owner was the granddaughter of Emperor Nicholas I and the niece of Emperor Alexander II, Princess Eugenia Maximilianovna of Oldenburg.

Natural, Architectural, and Archaeological Museum Reserve “Divnogorye” - one of the most popular and recognizable attractions of the Voronezh region, located on the right bank of the Don River, about 80 km south of Voronezh. Divnogorye is the center of Orthodox pilgrimage. Here you can see archeological monuments of the Paleolithic, Bronze, and Middle Ages. The unique Church of the Sicilian Icon of the Mother of God, built by Russian monks inside a chalk mountain in the first half of the 19th century, is its main sight.

Voronezh city of Russia photos

Pictures of voronezh.

Street traffic in Voronezh

Author: Sarychev Sergei

Voronezh architecture

Author: Constantin Silkin

Severnyy (Northern) Bridge - the longest bridge in Voronezh

Author: Mikhail Tsennykh

Places of Interest in Voronezh

The monumental building of Southeast Railway Administration in Voronezh

Author: Mikhail Maksimov

House of Samuil Marshak in Voronezh

Author: Sergey Bobrov

Movie theater Proletarian in Voronezh

Sights of Voronezh

Voronezh Opera and Ballet Theater

Author: Akim Sviridov

Voronezh Drama Theater

Author: Nikolay Hatuntsev

Church of Elijah the Prophet in Voronezh

Author: Averyanov Yuri

The questions of our visitors

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Voronezh aircraft plant [vaso].